From Biofuels to Integrated Biorefineries and Carbon Solutions

 

Zeljko Serdar, CCRES

Algae Energy in 2026

In 2026, the global algae energy sector has undergone a significant transformation. While early enthusiasm for algae as a direct replacement for petroleum-based fuels has tempered due to persistent economic challenges, the industry has pivoted toward more sustainable and profitable models. Standalone, large-scale biofuel production has largely given way to highly integrated, multi-product biorefineries and localized carbon-capture systems. Although direct fuel production remains costly, algae-based energy and biomass processing are experiencing robust market growth, driven by regulatory pressures, technological advancements, and the growing demand for circular economy solutions. This shift reflects a maturing industry that balances environmental benefits with commercial realities.

State of the Industry

The biofuel segment of the algae industry continues to face hurdles, but it has carved out viable niches where its unique properties provide clear advantages. Mass production of algae-based petroleum substitutes is still hampered by high extraction and processing costs. However, algae-derived fuels have found a targeted and growing role as high-density sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) and in maritime shipping. These sectors demand fuels with exceptional energy density and low emissions profiles, qualities that algae-based options can deliver effectively. Stricter European Union blending mandates, combined with global emission regulations such as those from the International Maritime Organization (IMO), have accelerated investment and adoption. Airlines and shipping companies are increasingly incorporating algae-derived SAF and marine fuels to meet decarbonization targets and avoid hefty carbon taxes.

Beyond fuels, urban carbon capture has emerged as a promising application. Companies are deploying living photobioreactors in urban and industrial settings, where microalgae actively capture CO₂ emissions from factories, power plants, and even direct air capture systems. These bioreactors not only mitigate climate impact but also generate valuable biomass as a byproduct. The harvested microalgae can then be processed into secondary energy sources or a variety of bioproducts, creating a dual revenue stream. Cities like Rotterdam, Singapore, and certain Chinese industrial hubs have become testing grounds for these integrated systems, demonstrating how algae can turn waste streams into resources while beautifying urban landscapes with green infrastructure.

Another frontier is bio-photovoltaics (BPV), where researchers are advancing the use of live photosynthetic cells to generate bioelectricity directly from sunlight. Unlike traditional solar panels, BPV systems harness the natural photosynthetic processes of algae and cyanobacteria to produce electricity through electron transfer. While still largely in the pilot and demonstration phase, BPV technology shows potential for low-maintenance, building-integrated energy generation. Early installations on rooftops and facades in research campuses have achieved promising efficiency gains, particularly when combined with carbon sequestration capabilities.

Overall, the industry in 2026 is characterized by pragmatism. Pure biofuel plays have consolidated, with many smaller ventures either failing or being acquired by larger biorefinery operators. Investment has shifted toward companies that demonstrate clear paths to profitability through product diversification rather than relying solely on fuel sales.

Future Trends & Commercial Viability

The economic viability of algae operations in 2026 hinges on the biorefinery model. Rarely is algal biomass used exclusively for energy production. Instead, facilities operate as sophisticated processing hubs that extract multiple high-value outputs from the same biomass. Premium fractions are directed toward cosmetic-grade extracts, nutraceuticals, plant-based proteins for human consumption or animal feed, and biofertilizers for sustainable agriculture. Only the residual or lower-grade biomass is then converted into renewable diesel, bioethanol, or biogas. This cascading utilization maximizes revenue and minimizes waste, making projects financially attractive even when fuel prices fluctuate.

A key enabler of this model is the integration of algae cultivation with wastewater treatment. Facilities co-located with municipal or industrial wastewater plants use excess nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) to fuel rapid algal growth, simultaneously cleaning contaminated water. This symbiotic approach significantly lowers operational costs—nutrient inputs often represent one of the largest expenses in algae farming—while providing environmental services that can generate additional revenue through carbon credits or water treatment fees. Pioneering projects in California, Israel, and India have shown impressive results, achieving up to 90% nutrient removal rates alongside substantial biomass yields. This circularity principle is becoming a standard feature in new developments.

Technological innovation is further enhancing commercial prospects. Startups and university research teams are leveraging genetic modifications to create algal strains with higher lipid content, faster growth rates, and greater resilience to environmental stressors. AI-controlled bioreactors optimize cultivation conditions in real time—adjusting light exposure, pH, temperature, and nutrient dosing—leading to dramatic reductions in cultivation and harvesting costs. Machine learning algorithms also improve harvesting efficiency through predictive analytics and automated flocculation or centrifugation processes. These enhancements are critical for scaling production without proportionally increasing energy or capital inputs.

Looking ahead, several trends are poised to shape the sector. Hybrid systems combining algae with other renewables (such as solar or wind) are gaining traction for energy self-sufficiency. Policy support, including subsidies for carbon-negative technologies and mandates for sustainable materials, continues to bolster the industry. Consumer demand for green products is also driving growth in non-energy applications, from algae-based packaging materials to biodegradable plastics.

Challenges remain, including scaling photobioreactors cost-effectively, managing contamination risks in open systems, and securing consistent offtake agreements for diverse products. Water usage in arid regions and the energy intensity of downstream processing require ongoing attention. Nevertheless, the industry’s trajectory in 2026 points toward resilience and innovation.

In the Republic of Croatia, notable contributions come from the Croatian Center of Renewable Energy Sources (CCRES) and its president and CEO, Zeljko Serdar. For over a decade, CCRES has been a pioneer in algae research and promotion in the region, focusing on microalgae cultivation for biofuels, high-value bioproducts (such as astaxanthin), and integration with aquaponics systems. Their work emphasizes practical, localized solutions tailored to Croatia’s climate and resources, including open ponds, closed photobioreactors, and circular approaches that combine algae growth with wastewater treatment and nutrient recycling. Serdar has been a vocal advocate, highlighting algae’s exceptional productivity — noting that under the right conditions, microalgae can double biomass overnight and are 10–15 times more prolific than the fastest-growing land plants. CCRES projects serve as important examples of grassroots and small-scale innovation within the European context, supporting the broader EU goals for renewable energy and sustainability.

In conclusion

The algae energy sector has evolved from a biofuels-centric vision into a multifaceted contributor to the bioeconomy. By embracing multi-product biorefineries, circular processes, and cutting-edge biotechnology — with valuable regional contributions from efforts like those of CCRES and Zeljko Serdar in Croatia — algae technologies are delivering both environmental impact and economic returns. As global pressures to decarbonize intensify, algae’s versatility positions it as a cornerstone of sustainable development. The coming years will likely see further consolidation and technological breakthroughs, solidifying algae’s role in the transition to a low-carbon future.

Happy Croatian Statehood Day!

 

Happy Croatian Statehood Day!

Today, as we mark the thirty-sixth anniversary of Croatian statehood, it is fitting to remember those who believed for decades that Croatia had the right to exist as an independent country. Many of them paid a heavy price, imprisoned, professionally destroyed, socially ostracized, or, in the early 1990s, gave their lives for that idea. For the vast majority of Croatian citizens, the creation of an independent state represented the fulfillment of a deep historical aspiration, regardless of later political disagreements.
However, Statehood Day also serves as a reminder that not all citizens have ever shared this sentiment. Franjo Tuđman, the father of Croatian independence, once estimated that 15 to 20 percent of the population was fundamentally opposed to the idea of a sovereign Croatian state. Although that percentage has decreased over time, a certain unease ,even hostility, toward Croatian statehood has not disappeared. It has merely changed its language and public expression.

In contemporary Croatia, a strange inversion persists: open contempt for the state and its symbols is often rewarded with prestige in intellectual and media circles. Some writers, journalists, and public intellectuals have never truly accepted the Croatian state as a legitimate and positive historical reality. Instead, they treat it with persistent skepticism, discomfort, or thinly veiled disdain, all while positioning themselves as morally and intellectually elevated precisely because of that stance.
This phenomenon is not unique to Croatia, but it remains particularly striking here: in a country that had to fight for its very existence, some still view its success not as a victory, but as something to be subtly undermined.

May this day remind us of the courage, sacrifices, and determination of those who fought for Croatia's right to exist as a free and independent nation. After decades of dreaming and struggling, the establishment of the modern Croatian state remains one of the most significant achievements in our history.
Here's to a stronger, prouder, and more united Croatia, one that honors its defenders, respects its symbols, and continues building on the foundations laid in 1990.

Živjela Hrvatska! ✨

The Apparent Paradox / High Gas Prices in America Amid Record Oil Exports

 

People in the USA cannot afford to fill their vehicles up, but at the same time, at least 121 EMPTY OIL TANKERS are making their way to the United States of America right now.

The empty tankers are heading to the USA to load crude oil for export to global markets, which are facing shortages due to disruptions in the Strait of Hormuz. 

The USA is the world's gas station now! Someone needs to explain why gas prices are so high for USA citizens, paying almost $4-$6 a gallon at the pump?

Ovo je klasičan primjer energetskog realizma. Američka Shale Revolucija dala je SAD-u stratešku prednost i status najvećeg izvoznika, što je u ovakvim geopolitičkim krizama izuzetno važno. 

Dugoročno, veća domaća proizvodnja, ulaganja u rafinerije i brže izdavanje dozvola pomažu ponudi. Međutim, nemoguće je potpuno se odvojiti od globalnog tržišta bez velikih subvencija, cjenovnih kontrola, koje dovode do nestašica, ili autarkije.

Visoke cijene istodobno potiču razvoj alternativa, električna vozila, nuklearna energija, veća energetska učinkovitost, i jasno signaliziraju geopolitičke rizike opskrbe. Porast broja tankera pokazuje američku energetsku dominaciju, ali ne čini benzin jeftinijim za američke građane dok ostatak svijeta podiže cijenu barela. Tržište se jednostavno poravnavalo na višoj razini zbog realnih poremećaja ponude.

Danas je Američka Shale Revolucija i dalje glavni motor američke naftne proizvodnje. Permijanski bazen sam proizvodi više nafte nego većina zemalja OPEC-a. Zahvaljujući njoj, SAD mogu brzo reagirati na globalne poremećaje, kao što je sadašnja situacija s Hormuzom, i postati „benzinska postaja svijeta“, kako je rekao Trump.

Američka Shale Revolucija primjer je kako tehnološka inovacija može dramatično promijeniti energetsku, ekonomsku i geopolitičku sliku svijeta u samo 15-ak godina.

The World’s Gas Station – But Americans Can’t Afford to Fill Up

In an era of geopolitical tension, a striking scene unfolds: at least 121 empty oil tankers steam toward the United States to load American crude for export to global markets desperate for supply after disruptions in the Strait of Hormuz. At the same time, many American drivers struggle to afford filling their tanks, with national average gasoline prices hovering around $4.35–$4.50 per gallon in May 2026, and exceeding $6 in California. Critics point to this as evidence of misplaced priorities, while supporters hail it as proof that the U.S. has become “the world’s gas station.” This situation is not a contradiction but a textbook example of energy realism in a globally interconnected oil market. It underscores the transformative power of the American Shale Revolution and the limits of energy independence in a fungible commodity world.

The roots of America’s current position lie in the Shale Revolution, a technological breakthrough that began in the mid-2000s and accelerated in the 2010s. By combining horizontal drilling with hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”), engineers unlocked vast reserves of oil and natural gas trapped in tight shale rock formations. Fields such as the Permian Basin in Texas and New Mexico, the Bakken in North Dakota, and the Eagle Ford became powerhouses of production. Within little more than a decade, the United States went from being a declining producer heavily reliant on imports to the world’s top oil and gas producer, surpassing Saudi Arabia and Russia.

This revolution delivered profound strategic benefits. The U.S. achieved net exporter status for petroleum products around 2019–2020. Domestic production cushioned the economy against foreign supply shocks, improved the trade balance, created hundreds of thousands of jobs, and enhanced geopolitical leverage. No longer could OPEC or Middle Eastern instability easily blackmail American foreign policy through energy threats. In the current crisis involving Iran and the Strait of Hormuz — a chokepoint carrying roughly 20% of global oil — the world is turning to American supplies. U.S. crude exports have surged to record levels exceeding 5 million barrels per day, with the Permian Basin alone producing more oil than most OPEC nations.

Yet for ordinary citizens at the pump, the benefits feel abstract. Oil is a global fungible commodity. A barrel produced in Texas is chemically similar to one from anywhere else and sells into a single world market priced by Brent or WTI benchmarks. When disruptions spike global prices — as seen with the Hormuz situation driving crude toward or above $100 — American refiners must compete with international buyers. Domestic producers naturally sell where prices are highest, and there is no practical mechanism to wall off cheap oil exclusively for U.S. consumers without causing market distortions, shortages, or massive subsidies.

High Gas Prices Amid Record Exports: The Hard Truth of Energy Realism

Additional domestic factors compound the pain: refining capacity constraints, regional specifications (especially California’s), taxes, distribution costs, and seasonal maintenance. Exports benefit producers, shareholders, workers in energy states, and the broader economy through tax revenues and a stronger dollar, but they do not insulate consumers from the marginal global price. High prices are the market’s way of signaling scarcity and incentivizing new supply — precisely what has allowed the U.S. to ramp up exports so rapidly.

This dynamic reflects energy realism. Complete autarky is unrealistic and undesirable in a modern economy. Price controls or export bans historically lead to shortages and black markets. Instead, the Shale Revolution offers a better path: an abundant supply that strengthens national resilience. The surge of tankers heading to U.S. ports demonstrates American energy dominance. In times of global crisis, the U.S. can step in as a reliable supplier, earning economic and strategic dividends while allies and neutral nations avoid worse disruptions.

Long-term, the solution lies in expanding supply and diversity. Faster permitting, investment in refining infrastructure, and continued technological innovation in shale and beyond can increase domestic availability. High prices themselves accelerate the transition toward alternatives: electric vehicles, greater energy efficiency, nuclear power, and renewables where economically viable. They also highlight the enduring geopolitical risks of oil dependence, encouraging smarter policy focused on all-of-the-above energy strategies rather than ideological extremes.

The Shale Revolution stands as one of the most significant technological and economic achievements of the 21st century. In roughly 15 years, it reshaped not only America’s energy landscape but global geopolitics. The sight of dozens of supertankers converging on U.S. Gulf ports is a powerful symbol of that success. It does not eliminate the immediate pain at the pump, but it positions the United States far better than in previous oil crises, when the country was a vulnerable importer.

Empty Tankers, Expensive Pumps: The Shale Paradox in America

In the end, energy markets reward realism over rhetoric. The U.S. cannot fully escape global price signals, but thanks to shale innovation, it now shapes those signals more than it suffers from them. The challenge for policymakers is to harness this strength — boosting production, modernizing infrastructure, and fostering competition — so that American consumers ultimately share more fully in the nation’s energy abundance.

Croatia: Eurozone’s Fastest-Growing “Miracle”… or a Ticking Time B**b?

While the glossy tourism ads and glowing GDP figures tell one story, the reality on the ground is far darker. Croatia is growing faster than almost any other Eurozone country on paper — yet that growth is masking a structural collapse that is quietly pricing its own citizens out of their homeland.

Here’s the uncomfortable truth the numbers hide:

Brain drain on steroids: An entire generation of young, educated Croatians has left for better opportunities abroad. The demographic hole they left behind is now being filled by imported labor — a short-term fix that only deepens the long-term crisis.

Real-estate paradox: Coastal towns and cities are full of “ghost homes” bought by foreigners and turned into Airbnb cash machines. Prices have skyrocketed so high that locals can no longer afford to buy or even rent in the places they grew up. The very houses meant for Croatians have become vacation assets for outsiders.

Tourism monoculture (a.k.a. Dutch Disease 2.0): The economy has become dangerously dependent on one sector. When your entire growth model relies on seasonal visitors, sun, and sea, you’re one bad summer or global shock away from disaster — and everything else (industry, tech, agriculture) gets crowded out.

Bureaucratic Leviathan + EU money IV drip: Endless red tape, slow public administration, and a constant flow of Brussels cohesion funds create the illusion of progress. Take away the “free money” and the structural weaknesses become impossible to ignore.

Euro illusion: Joining the euro brought prestige and lower interest rates… but also a brutal reality check at the grocery store. Every day prices shot up while wages lagged, squeezing the middle class even harder.

The result? Croatia is getting richer on spreadsheets, but its people are getting poorer in real life. This isn’t development — it’s extractive growth built on demographic decline, foreign capital, and seasonal tourism.

Brain drain, ili odljev mozgova, nije samo statistički problem – to je strukturna rana hrvatske ekonomije koja se produbljuje već više od desetljeća. Radi se o masovnom odlasku mladih, obrazovanih i visokokvalificiranih ljudi u inozemstvo u potrazi za boljim plaćama, prilikama i životnim standardom. U kontekstu videa koji smo ranije analizirali, ovo je upravo ta „Velika demografska iluzija“: na papiru Hrvatska izgleda stabilno zahvaljujući uvozu radne snage i EU fondovima, ali u stvarnosti gubi svoju najvredniju imovinu – vlastitu mladu radnu snagu.

1. Ključni statistički podaci (stanje 2024.–2026.)

Gubitak stanovništva: Od ulaska u EU 2013. Hrvatska je izgubila blizu 400.000 stanovnika – to je oko 10 % ukupne populacije. Prema procjenama, do 2050. mogla bi izgubiti još i do 600.000 ljudi ako se trend nastavi.

Godišnji odljev: Još uvijek oko 60.000 Hrvata (većinom mladih i obrazovanih) napušta zemlju svake godine. Najviše odlaze u Njemačku, Austriju, Irsku i druge zapadne zemlje EU-a.

Tko odlazi? Najjače pogođene su dobne skupine 20–29 i 25–34 godine. Posebno su pogođeni visokoobrazovani: liječnici, inženjeri, IT stručnjaci, znanstvenici i kvalificirani radnici iz zdravstva, graditeljstva i turizma. Prema indeksu „human flight and brain drain“ (2024.), Hrvatska je na 5,8 od 10 bodova – među najgorima u EU.

Demografski učinak: Stanovništvo Hrvatske 2026. iznosi oko 3,82 milijuna i nastavlja padati (–0,67 % godišnje). Udio starijih od 65 godina već je preko 22 %, a do 2050. mogao bi doseći 30 %.

2. Razlozi odlaska (nije samo „bolja plaća“)

Glavni pokretači nisu samo ekonomski:

Plaće i prilike: Čak i zaposleni Hrvati odlaze jer u inozemstvu zarađuju 2–3 puta više za isti posao.

Birokracija i korupcija: Spora administracija, nepotizam i slab osjećaj pravne sigurnosti tjeraju ambiciozne mlade.

Stanovanje i troškovi života: Nakon ulaska u euro, cijene nekretnina i hrane su eksplodirale, a plaće nisu pratile rast.

Životni stil i perspektiva: Mladi vide veće šanse za karijeru, obitelj i ravnotežu između posla i privatnog života u Zapadnoj Europi.

EU članstvo kao „otvorena vrata“: Slobodno kretanje radne snage od 2013. samo je ubrzalo proces (slično Rumunjskoj i Bugarskoj).

3. Posljedice na ekonomiju i društvo

Manjak kvalificirane radne snage: Nedostaje stručnjaka u ključnim sektorima → usporava rast produktivnosti i inovacija. Hrvatska se oslanja na turizam i usluge niske dodane vrijednosti, a ne na visokotehnološke industrije.

Pritisak na javne financije: Manje poreznih obveznika + više umirovljenika = opterećenje mirovinskog i zdravstvenog sustava. OECD upozorava da će demografski trendovi ozbiljno ugroziti rast BDP-a i javne financije.

„Iluzija rasta“: Uvozna radna snaga (preko 100.000 radnika iz Azije i susjednih zemalja do 2025.) popunjava rupe u turizmu, graditeljstvu i ugostiteljstvu, ali ti radnici su uglavnom niskoobrazovani i privremeni. Ne nadoknađuju gubitak visokokvalificiranih Hrvata.

Regijski dispariteti: Najjače pogođene su Slavonija, Lika i ruralna područja – gradovi na obali „preživljavaju“ turizmom, ali gube domaću mladost.

4. Promjene u posljednje 2–3 godine (2024.–2026.)

Nema više čiste „katastrofe“ – dolazi do blagog preokreta:

Od 2022. neto migracija je pozitivna zahvaljujući uvozu radne snage.

Vraća se oko 35.000 ljudi u posljednje tri godine (2023.–2025.).

Vlada je donijela Strategiju demografske revitalizacije do 2033., povećala rodiljne naknade, produžila očinski dopust i najavila mjere za povratak dijaspore.

Plaće u javnom sektoru rastu brže od privatnog, a nezaposlenost je na povijesno niskih ~5 %.

Ipak, ovo su još uvijek kratkoročni flasteri. Uvezeni radnici ne rješavaju problem gubitka „mozgova“, a mnogi se ne planiraju dugoročno integrirati.

Zaključak: Je li ovo neizbježno?

Brain drain nije sudbina – to je rezultat nedostatka dugoročne vizije. Hrvatska ima turizam, EU fondove i strateški položaj, ali bez ozbiljne politike zadržavanja talenata (bolje plaće u privatnom sektoru, porezne olakšice za mlade, digitalizacija administracije, ulaganje u STEM i znanost) rizikuje da postane „Mediterranean retirement home“ za bogate strance, dok domaći mladi odlaze.

The big question nobody wants to ask out loud:

Is this sustainable, or are we watching a Mediterranean version of a classic economic trap in real time?

Growth on paper is easy. Real development — keeping your young people, housing your citizens, and building a diversified economy — is the hard part Croatia still has to solve. 

Zeljko Serdar, CCRES.

#CroatiaEconomy #Eurozone #BrainDrain #RealEstateCrisis  #DutchDisease #EUFunds #EconomicReality

From Hormuz Chaos to Energy Independence: Why Renewables Are Winning the Geopolitical Game

Strait of Hormuz Shutdown: 

The Fossil Fuel Wake-Up Call That Makes Renewables the Only Secure Path Forward

The ongoing war in Iran has starkly exposed the world's dangerous dependence on fragile fossil fuel chokepoints. Fighting has virtually halted oil exports through the Strait of Hormuz, the narrow waterway that normally carries about one-fifth of global oil and a significant share of liquefied natural gas (LNG). This disruption has sent energy markets into turmoil, driving up prices and putting severe pressure on import-dependent economies.

Asia, the primary destination for much of this oil, has been hit hardest, but the ripple effects are felt worldwide—including in Europe, where governments are scrambling to reduce energy demand, and in Africa, facing higher fuel costs and inflation risks.

What makes this moment different from past oil shocks is that renewables are now genuinely competitive. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), more than 90% of new renewable power projects worldwide in 2024 were cheaper than fossil-fuel alternatives. The conflict underscores the urgent need to accelerate the global shift to clean energy, reducing vulnerability to geopolitical flashpoints like the Strait of Hormuz.

For the Republic of Croatia, the future in renewables looks increasingly promising. Thanks to abundant natural advantages—high solar irradiation (one of the best in the EU), strong wind resources, established hydropower, and significant geothermal potential—the country is rapidly expanding its clean energy capacity.

In 2025, Croatia set new records: solar, wind, biomass, and biogas together generated over 5 TWh, surpassing other sources and covering 26.6% of electricity consumption. When including hydropower, renewables supplied more than 52.6% of electricity. Solar installations surged, reaching around 1.255 GW by late 2025, with projections for solar to overtake wind in installed capacity by early 2026.

Croatia's revised National Energy and Climate Plan targets a 42.5% share of renewables in gross final energy consumption by 2030 (with ambitions up to 65.6% by 2050), supported by massive untapped potential: up to 7 GW of solar and an estimated 25 GW in offshore wind. Ongoing regulatory improvements aim to unblock grid connections for large-scale projects, boost behind-the-meter solar and storage, and develop geothermal for baseload power.

By investing in these domestic, secure, and increasingly affordable sources, Croatia can enhance energy independence, shield itself from global fossil fuel volatility—like the current Hormuz crisis—and lead in Europe's green transition. The path is clear: renewables aren't just the future; they're the present and the smartest way forward.

Zeljko Serdar, Croatian Center of Renewable Energy Sources (CCRES)

Sweden’s electricity generation is predominantly fossil-free.

 

Sweden generates about 99% of its electricity from low-carbon sources, with fossil fuels making up just 1.2% of the mix. The country's power grid relies heavily on hydropower (around 40%), nuclear (about 27-29%), and wind (roughly 25%), supplemented by smaller shares from solar, biofuels, and other renewables. This fossil-free dominance isn't new; Sweden has been phasing out coal, oil, and gas for decades, achieving near-total decarbonization of its electricity sector while exporting clean power to neighbors.

This setup makes Sweden a global leader in sustainable energy, with low emissions per capita (0.6 tonnes CO2e) and a commitment to 100% renewable electricity by 2040. It's a model for how abundant natural resources like rivers and wind, combined with strategic nuclear use, can power a modern economy without relying on dirty fuels.

Sweden has long relied on nuclear energy as a cornerstone of its electricity system, providing stable, low-carbon baseload power that complements its abundant hydropower and growing wind resources. This role has evolved from a response to energy security concerns in the 1970s to a key element in the country's push toward net-zero emissions amid rising electricity demand.

Sweden's nuclear program began in the late 1960s as a strategy to diversify away from oil imports and support industrial growth, especially after the 1973 oil crisis exposed vulnerabilities in fossil fuel dependence. At the time, oil accounted for about 75% of the country's energy consumption, prompting a rapid build-out of nuclear reactors alongside hydropower. By the 1980s, nuclear had become integral, but a 1980 referendum led to a government decision to phase it out—though this was never fully implemented due to economic and energy needs. Instead, Sweden maintained and upgraded its fleet, avoiding new builds until recent policy shifts.

As of 2024-2025 data, nuclear power generates approximately 29-30% of Sweden's electricity, with six operational reactors across three plants: Forsmark (three reactors), Ringhals (two), and Oskarshamn (one). This contributes to Sweden's near-fossil-free grid, where nuclear provides reliable, dispatchable energy that balances intermittent renewables like wind (about 23%) and hydro (38%). In 2024, nuclear produced around 50 TWh out of total generation of 172 TWh, helping keep per-capita CO2 emissions low and enabling electricity exports to neighboring countries. It's particularly vital for grid stability in southern Sweden, where demand is high and hydro resources are limited.

Nuclear's efficiency is evident in its high capacity factors (often over 90%), minimal fuel needs, and role in decarbonization—Sweden's electricity sector emissions are among the world's lowest, at under 10g CO2/kWh. However, aging infrastructure has led to some reactor closures (e.g., two at Ringhals in recent years), reducing capacity from a peak of 12 reactors.

Future Plans and Policy

In a major pivot, the Swedish government under Prime Minister Ulf Kristersson shifted in 2023 from a "100% renewable" target to "100% fossil-free" by 2045, explicitly endorsing nuclear expansion to meet projected doubling of electricity demand by 2040-2045 (driven by electrification in transport, industry, and data centers). Plans include building two new large-scale reactors by 2035 and up to ten equivalent reactors by 2045, potentially including small modular reactors (SMRs) like GE's BWRX-300. A 2025 OECD report highlights nuclear (alongside onshore wind) as the most cost-effective option for this growth, with no viable role for offshore wind in least-cost scenarios.

Public opinion remains mixed, with about 50-60% supporting nuclear in polls, but the policy emphasizes its environmental benefits, such as reducing emissions by an estimated 62% in historical contexts. Challenges include high upfront costs, regulatory hurdles, and waste management, but Sweden's experience positions it as a leader in safe nuclear operations.

Overall, nuclear energy is pivotal to Sweden's energy security, climate goals, and economic competitiveness, evolving from a transitional technology to a long-term pillar in a fossil-free future.

Now, comparing Sweden to Croatia on renewable energy: 

While Sweden's electricity is over 70% renewable (hydro, wind, solar, etc., excluding nuclear), Croatia hit a milestone in 2025 with renewables supplying 52.6% of its electricity consumption—including hydro (26%), wind/solar/biomass/biogas (26.6%). 

Croatia's mix still includes notable fossil shares like gas (13%) and coal (4%), plus heavy imports (31%), but it's making rapid progress: renewable production grew, fossil output dropped over 50% in parts of 2025, and solar/wind are booming. Sweden is farther along in full decarbonization, but Croatia's trajectory shows strong potential, especially with targets for 42.5% renewables in overall energy by 2030. Both nations highlight Europe's push toward green power!

Zeljko Serdar, Croatian Center of Renewable Energy Sources (CCRES)

Next-Generation Geothermal Energy

 

The United States is doubling down on geothermal power as a cornerstone of its energy future. On February 27, 2026, the Department of Energy (DOE) announced a major $171.5 million funding opportunity to accelerate next-generation geothermal technologies through field-scale tests and exploration drilling. This initiative will support both electricity generation projects and critical resource characterization work, directly advancing President Trump’s Executive Order on Unleashing American Energy.

The funding targets six specific topics, with the first application round focusing on enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) and drilling programs for next-generation and hydrothermal resource confirmation. These investments aim to de-risk innovative approaches, attract private capital, and unlock the vast untapped potential of geothermal energy — a clean, reliable, 24/7 baseload power source that can power homes, businesses, and data centers without intermittency issues.

“Work under this opportunity will directly support our commitments to advance energy addition, reduce energy costs for American families and businesses, and unleash American energy dominance and innovation,” said DOE Assistant Secretary of the Hydrocarbons and Geothermal Energy Office, Kyle Haustveit. He emphasized that thanks to President Trump’s America First Energy Agenda, these demonstrations will spur domestic manufacturing, enable data center growth, and deliver affordable, secure energy nationwide.

The United States already leads the world with approximately 4 gigawatts of installed geothermal capacity. However, DOE analyses project a staggering potential of at least 300 gigawatts of reliable geothermal power on the U.S. grid by 2050. By proving commercial viability at scale, this funding round is expected to catalyze widespread private investment and industry expansion.

Letters of Intent are due March 27, 2026, with full applications due April 30, 2026. This rapid timeline underscores the urgency and momentum behind America’s push to dominate in geothermal innovation.

Geothermal energy stands out because it offers firm, dispatchable power — the missing piece in a renewables-heavy grid dominated by variable solar and wind. With this investment, the U.S. is positioning itself not just to meet domestic demand but to export technology and expertise globally, strengthening energy security and economic competitiveness.

Key Information on Geothermal Sources in the Republic of Croatia

Croatia possesses significant geothermal potential, especially in the northern and eastern Pannonian Basin region, where the geothermal gradient is about 60% higher than the European average (roughly 0.049 °C/m compared to Europe’s 0.03 °C/m). This makes the area highly prospective for both heat and electricity production.

Known resources: 28 geothermal fields identified, of which 18 are in active use, primarily for direct applications such as spa tourism (balneotherapy), recreation, and space heating. Installed thermal capacity includes approximately 36.7 MW for space heating and 77.3 MW for bathing/swimming pools.

Electricity production: Croatia currently has one geothermal power plant — Velika Ciglena (Velika 1) near Bjelovar — with a gross capacity of around 17.5 MW (net ~10 MW). The plant has been offline in recent years due to ownership disputes, though new investors are showing interest. A new 15 MW electricity project is under development in Babina Greda (drilling of an exploratory well to ~3,850 m began in 2025, targeting 170 °C water).

Recent breakthroughs (2025–2026): The Croatian Hydrocarbon Agency (AZU) achieved a perfect 100% success rate in four exploration sites funded by the National Recovery and Resilience Plan:

– Velika Gorica (>100 °C) — could cover nearly 60% of the city’s district heating needs

– Osijek (>100 °C, ~5 MW heating potential)

– Vinkovci (record 131 °C at 2,700 m)

– Zaprešić (near Zagreb, >95 °C at >1,600 m)

Additional drilling is underway in Virovitica and other locations.

Overall potential: 

Conservative estimates suggest up to 1 GW of geothermal power plant capacity is feasible at identified sites. There are currently six active exploration projects focused on both electricity and district heating. Geothermal is viewed as a key pillar for energy independence and is fully integrated into Croatia’s National Energy Strategy, which targets 42.5% renewables in gross final energy consumption by 2030 and 65.6% by 2050.

Croatia’s geothermal resources are already powering tourism and local heating, and with continued exploration success and international interest, the country is well-positioned to expand into large-scale district heating networks and electricity generation — complementing the global momentum highlighted by the latest U.S. funding announcement.

The future of geothermal looks bright on both sides of the Atlantic. Zeljko Serdar, CCRES

Ready for a circular, resilient energy future?

As the EU races towards climate neutrality by 2050, our energy landscape is transforming rapidly—with clean sources taking center stage. But the real game-changer? Maturing innovative technologies still in the R&I pipeline that promise a sustainable future.

A groundbreaking new study tackles the challenges head-on: from resource sustainability and supply chain resilience to minimizing environmental and social impacts. It calls for early, ongoing assessments to align emerging clean energy tech with EU goals, boosting sustainability, circularity, resilience, and technological autonomy.

Key highlights:

Comprehensive review of assessment methods.

Insights from stakeholder consultations.

Actionable approaches refined with Horizon Europe projects at various tech readiness levels.

A flexible framework tailored to maturity stages, plus tech-specific guidelines.

Sector spotlights: Carbon capture, utilisation & storage (CCUS); energy infrastructure; energy storage; renewable & low-carbon fuels; and renewable energy technologies.

Funded by Horizon Europe (2021-2022), this study powers the European Climate Law, Renewable Energy Directive, Clean Industrial Deal, Critical Raw Materials Act, upcoming Circular Economy Act, Net Zero Industry Act, and SET Plan.

The Net Zero Industry Act (NZIA) is a European Union regulation designed to strengthen the EU's manufacturing ecosystem for net-zero technologies, supporting the transition to climate neutrality by 2050 as part of the broader European Green Deal. It aims to scale up domestic production of clean technologies to enhance energy resilience, attract investments, and boost industrial competitiveness against global rivals like the US and China.

Key Objectives

Manufacturing Benchmark: The act sets a non-binding target for the EU's net-zero technology manufacturing capacity to meet at least 40% of the bloc's annual deployment needs by 2030, with an additional goal of capturing 15% of global market value by 2040.

Technology Focus: It prioritizes 19 strategic net-zero technologies, including solar, wind, batteries and storage, heat pumps, geothermal energy, nuclear, renewable fuels of non-biological origin (RFNBOs), carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS), and grid infrastructure.

Resilience and Sustainability: The NZIA addresses barriers to scaling up production, such as permitting delays, supply chain vulnerabilities, and skills shortages, while promoting circular economy principles and technological autonomy.

Main Provisions

Permitting and Acceleration: Streamlines regulatory processes for "net-zero strategic projects," setting maximum timelines for permits (e.g., 9-18 months depending on project size) and designating single points of contact in member states to expedite approvals.

Public Procurement and Auctions: Introduces sustainability and resilience criteria for public tenders, requiring at least 30% weighting for factors like environmental impact and supply chain diversity. For auctions (e.g., renewable energy), it allows non-price criteria to make up to 30% of award decisions.

Skills and Innovation: Establishes Net-Zero Europe Academies to train 100,000 workers within three years for key sectors, and supports innovation through regulatory sandboxes and funding under programs like Horizon Europe.

CO2 Storage Target: Specifically for CCUS, it mandates an EU-wide annual CO2 injection capacity of 50 million tonnes by 2030, with contributions from oil and gas producers based on their market share.

Background and Status

Proposed by the European Commission in March 2023 as a response to the US Inflation Reduction Act, the NZIA was politically agreed upon in February 2024 and entered into force on June 29, 2024 (Regulation (EU) 2024/1735). As of early 2026, implementation is underway, with member states required to transpose elements like permitting frameworks by mid-2025. The act aligns with other EU policies, such as the Critical Raw Materials Act and the Renewable Energy Directive, to foster green jobs—potentially creating up to 3 million additional roles—and reduce dependency on imports.

CCUS Sector Spotlight: 

Advancing Carbon Capture, Utilisation, and Storage in the EU's Clean Energy Transition

As the EU pushes toward climate neutrality by 2050, Carbon Capture, Utilisation, and Storage (CCUS) stands out as a critical technology for decarbonizing hard-to-abate sectors like industry, power generation, and hydrogen production. The recent "Study on circular approaches for a sustainable and affordable clean energy transition," funded by Horizon Europe, dedicates one of its five sector-specific guidelines to CCUS, emphasizing its role in achieving EU climate goals while addressing sustainability challenges.

Key Role in the EU Energy Mix

Decarbonization Potential: CCUS enables the capture of CO₂ emissions from fossil fuel-based processes, biogenic sources, or directly from the air (DACCS), followed by utilisation (e.g., in chemicals, fuels, or materials) or permanent geological storage. It's essential for reaching net-zero, with the EU targeting 50 million tonnes of annual CO₂ injection capacity by 2030 under the Net Zero Industry Act.

Alignment with EU Policies: The study links CCUS to frameworks like the European Climate Law, Renewable Energy Directive, Critical Raw Materials Act, and Net Zero Industry Act. It promotes CCUS as a bridge to a circular carbon economy, transitioning from fossil CO₂ to atmospheric or biogenic sources for non-permanent uses.

The Study's Methodological Framework for CCUS

The guidelines offer a flexible, stage-adapted approach to assess CCUS technologies across Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs) from lab (TRL 1-4) to market deployment (TRL 7-9). Assessments cover four pillars: environmental, economic, and social sustainability; circularity; EU resilience; and technological autonomy.

Early-Stage (Low TRL): Focus on conceptual design, identifying potential environmental risks (e.g., CO₂ leakage) and resource needs. Use qualitative tools like life-cycle thinking to flag circularity opportunities, such as CO₂ reuse in products.

Mid-Stage (Medium TRL): Incorporate quantitative metrics, including life-cycle assessments (LCA) for GHG emissions and resource efficiency. Evaluate supply chain vulnerabilities, like dependency on critical materials for capture solvents or membranes.

Advanced Stage (High TRL): Conduct full-scale pilots with stakeholder input, assessing social impacts (e.g., community acceptance) and economic viability. Validate resilience through scenario analysis, ensuring EU technological sovereignty by reducing import reliance.

Identified Challenges and Gaps

The study highlights several hurdles in scaling CCUS, urging early interventions to maximize positive impacts:

Resource and Circularity Issues: High demand for materials like amines or sorbents could strain supplies; the guidelines recommend circular strategies, such as recycling capture media and integrating CCUS with renewable energy for lower-energy processes.

Supply Chain Resilience: Global dependencies pose risks; assessments should prioritize EU-sourced innovations to enhance autonomy.

Environmental and Social Impacts: Potential for unintended consequences, like increased water use or land disturbance in storage sites. Social acceptance is key, with calls for transparent risk assessments and community engagement.

Rapid Scale-Up Risks: Accelerating deployment without thorough evaluation could lead to inefficiencies or backlash; the framework advocates continuous monitoring to adapt to technological evolution.

Recommendations and Actionable Approaches

Integrated Assessments: Use LCA and circularity indicators (e.g., material flow analysis) to ensure CCUS contributes to net GHG reductions, avoiding rebound effects.

Stakeholder Collaboration: Draw from consultations in the study, involving industry, researchers, and policymakers to refine guidelines via Horizon Europe projects.

Policy Support: Leverage EU funding for pilots, aiming for a comprehensive CCUS strategy inspired by the Hydrogen Strategy, including targets for removals and compliance markets.

Future Outlook: With EU-wide initiatives like the Innovation Fund supporting CCUS demos, the guidelines aim to bridge lab-to-market gaps, fostering green jobs and reducing import dependencies.

Critics note that while the NZIA provides a framework, it lacks substantial new funding, relying on existing mechanisms like the EU Innovation Fund, which may limit its impact compared to more subsidy-heavy approaches elsewhere. For the latest developments, official EU resources or updates from the Commission are recommended.

Let's accelerate the clean energy transition responsibly! What do you think—ready for a circular, resilient EU energy future? 

Zeljko Serdar, Croatian Center of Renewable Energy Sources  

#CleanEnergy #EUGreenDeal #Sustainability

Exploring Sustainable Development / A Path to a Balanced Future

Sustainable development isn't just a buzzword—it's a dynamic framework that balances economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection to secure long-term well-being and equity across generations. At its core, it's about the famous "three pillars": economy, society, and environment. But let's dive deeper into its evolving perspectives!

Core Pillars and Frameworks:

• Three Dimensions: Harmonizing economic viability, social equity, and ecological health.
• Four Dimensions: Expanding to include culture or institutions for a more holistic view (Environment, Social, Economy, Culture).
• The 4Ps: A fresh lens focusing on People (human rights and well-being), Planet (environmental stewardship), Prosperity (economic growth for all), and Peace (stable societies free from conflict).
• Systems Thinking: Everything's interconnected—tackling issues holistically, not in silos.
• Intergenerational Equity: Meet today's needs without robbing tomorrow's generations of theirs.
• Circular Economy: Shift from linear "take-make-waste" to regenerative models that minimize waste, reuse resources, and promote sustainable production/consumption.

Specialized Angles:

• Corporate/Political: Driving toward the UN's 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) under Agenda 2030—think ending poverty, climate action, and gender equality by 2030.
• Environmental Justice: Ensuring fair policies that involve everyone, especially marginalized communities, in fighting climate change and pollution.
• Educational: Building skills and awareness in schools and beyond to empower future sustainability leaders.
• Theoretical: From "extinction avoidance" (safeguarding biodiversity) to "collective stewardship" (shared global responsibility) and "individual responsibility" (personal actions matter!).

The circular economy shifts from the traditional "take-make-waste" model to one focused on regeneration, reuse, and resource efficiency. Below are some real-world examples across industries, showcasing how companies and projects implement these principles.

Fashion and Apparel

• Adidas FUTURECRAFT.LOOP Shoes: Adidas designed high-performance running shoes that are fully recyclable. Customers return used pairs, which are broken down and remade into new shoes, closing the loop on materials and reducing plastic waste.
• H&M Garment Collection Program: H&M collects used textiles from customers in stores, sorting them for resale (second-hand), reuse (as cleaning cloths), or recycling (into new fibers for insulation or fabrics). This initiative recovered over 29,000 tonnes of textiles in one year, creating revenue streams while minimizing landfill waste.

Furniture and Retail

• IKEA Buy-Back and Second-Hand Stores: IKEA buys back used furniture from customers for refurbishment and resale in dedicated second-hand outlets, like the one in Eskilstuna, Sweden. This extends product lifecycles, supports their goal of using only renewable or recycled materials by 2030, and has assessed over 9,500 products for improved circularity.

Construction and Built Environment

• Circle House in Aarhus, Denmark: This social housing project, completed in 2023, is built using circular principles with reusable materials like old bricks, roofing tiles, and concrete from demolished sites. It reduces CO2 emissions and waste, demonstrating scalable sustainable building practices.
• Lendager's "The Swan" Childcare Center in Gladsaxe, Denmark: Constructed from reused materials from an old school, including bricks, wood rafters, steel, and even the original clock, this project cuts construction waste and CO2 footprint while promoting architectural innovation.

Electronics and IT

• Re-Tek IT Refurbishment: This UK-based company collects redundant IT equipment from organizations, remarketing 80% for reuse and harvesting parts from the rest. It diverts 99% of collected electronics from landfills and shares revenue with original owners.

Packaging and Consumer Goods

• Danish Deposit and Return System: Consumers pay a small deposit on beverage cans and bottles, refunded upon return. This system recycles nearly all containers, reducing litter and promoting material reuse across the country.

Industrial Processes

• Industrial Symbiosis in Kalundborg, Denmark: Companies in this eco-industrial park exchange by-products, such as using excess heat from one factory to power another or turning waste gypsum into building materials. This collaborative model boosts efficiency and cuts resource consumption.

Sustainable development is far from static—it's adaptable to local cultures, global challenges, and emerging crises. It's a call to action for all of us: governments, businesses, and individuals. Zeljko Serdar, CCRES.