Maximize the use of RES with a cogeneration system and PV agrivoltaics

Since 2016 CCRES has been operating an innovation technology park that incorporates a training and research center.

One of the main changes that CCRES has made is to install a management system where you can study the consumption and assess what part of the process can be improved.

This will help to evaluate its weaknesses and aid us in what way the RES will influence this process.

The project objectives are:

• Reduce the power required (measuring the collection hours, and functionality periods….)

• Maximise the use of RES with a cogeneration system and PV agrivoltaics.

This management system can reduce energy consumption by 30-40%.

At the very least, showcases the ability of agrivoltaics to increase land-use efficiency without sacrificing much in the way of either energy or food production. Furthermore, many agrivoltaic configurations appear even to enhance both food and energy production while at the same time reducing the environmental impact of pursuing each activity as a standalone.

While this area of research is still advancing, findings from these particular studies can help to inform optimal designs and standards for emerging applications of agrivoltaics. To date, little support and guidance on best-practice implementation, let alone policy, exists to foster agrivoltaic deployment. Yet if current signals in research hold up, agrivoltaics may help low-carbon energy to become synergistic with, rather than competitive with, other sustainable development goals. 

Zeljko Serdar, CCRES

Photovoltaic Solar Energy

You've seen the panels on rooftops and mirrors in the desert. But how much do you really know about the technology needed to capture the tremendous power of the sun?

1. What is photovoltaic solar energy?

   ‘Photovoltaic’ is an amalgam made of two words: photo - photon which means ‘light’ and voltaic from Volt which is the unit used to measure electric potential at a given point.

   Photovoltaic systems use cells to convert sunlight into electricity. PV cells can be made from various so-called semiconductor materials. Today, silicon is the most widely used material, but other, usually compound (made from two or more elements) semiconductors are also used. PV cells are silent and non-polluting and utilize a source of energy that is practically inexhaustible.

2. What difference is there between thermal solar energy and photovoltaic solar energy?

   A photovoltaic solar energy system converts sunlight directly into electric power to run lighting or electric appliances. A photovoltaic system requires only daylight (indirect sunlight) to generate electricity.

   The solar thermal energy system converts direct sunlight into heat. This thermal energy can be used to heat water or air in buildings and in many other applications.

   Both technologies use the irradiance of the sun even if they are quite different.

    

3. What is a photovoltaic (PV) system?

   A photovoltaic (PV) system is a system that uses solar cells to convert light into electricity.

   A PV system consists of multiple components, including cells, electrical connections, mountings and means that regulate and/or modify the electrical output. Due to the low voltage of an individual solar cell (typically ca. 0.5V), several cells need to be combined into photovoltaic modules which are then connected together in an array.

   PV systems can be used for homes, offices, public buildings or remote sites where grid connection is either unavailable or too expensive. PV systems can be mounted on roofs, integrated in building façades or operate as stand-alone systems. The innovative PV array technology and mounting systems mean that PV can be retrofitted on existing roofs or easily incorporated as part of the building envelope at the construction stage. Modern PV technology has advanced rapidly and PV is no longer restricted to square and flat panel arrays but can be curved, flexible and shaped according to the building design.

   Photovoltaic cells are equally used in many daily electrical appliances, including watches, calculators, toys, battery chargers, professional sun roofs for automobiles. Other applications include power for services such as water sprinklers, road signs, traffic signals, remote lighting and security phones.

   PV systems can be either grid connected or off-grid.

   “Grid connected” means that the system is connected to the electricity grid. Connection to the local electricity network allows any excess power produced to feed into the electricity grid and to sell it to the utility, depending on local feed-in regulations.

   Such a PV system is designed to meet all or a portion of the daily energy needs. Typical on-grid applications are roof top systems on private houses.

   The diagram shows how electricity generated by solar cells in roof-mounted PV modules is transformed by an inverter into AC power suitable for export to the grid network. The owner then has two options: either to sell all the output to the local power utility (if a FiT is available) or to use the solar electricity to meet demand in the house itself, and sell any surplus to the utility.

   “Off-grid systems” have no connection to an electricity grid. Off-grid systems are contributing to rural electrification in many developing countries. PV is also used for many industrial applications where grid connection is not possible e.g. telecommunications, especially to link remote rural areas to the rest of the country.

   

4. What is a PV system composed of?

   Elements of a grid-connected PV system are: PV modules - converting sunlight into electric power, an inverter that converts direct current into alternating current, sub-construction -consisting of the mounting system, cabling and components used for electrical protection and a meter to record the amount of electric energy fed into the grid.

   Off-grid (stand-alone) systems on the other hand, use a charge controller to charge a storage battery used for providing the electric energy when there is no sunlight, e.g. during night hours.

5. What is an inverter?

   Solar cells produce direct current (DC). However, most of the electrical devices we commonly use work with a standard alternating current (AC) power supply. An inverter converts the DC from the solar cells into a useable form of AC.

   An inverter is moreover necessary to connect a PV system to the grid.

6. What is net metering?

   Under a self consumption scheme, the consumer primarily uses the electricity generated by his PV system in his own home or office and sends any surplus energy to the utility grid for use by others.

   A bidirectional meter counts both the outgoing and the incoming energy flow. If the home or office requires more or less electricity than can be produced by the PV system, the balance is provided by the grid or the excess electricity is sold to the grid.

   With a net metering scheme, the utility company only charges the difference between the consumed energy and the produced surplus energy. In some countries, the surplus energy remains available for consumption for a limited amount of time and cannot be sold (you can’t have a ‘negative’ energy bill).

   In many countries the utility company purchases all PV electricity generated at a higher rate (FiT) than the tariff applied for consumed electricity. In this case, a dedicated metering exists for ‘PV generation’ and a second metering for ‘power taken from the grid’, applying a different tariff to each.

7. What is the Feed-in Tariff (FIT) and how does it work?

   Utility companies are legally obliged to buy electricity from renewable energy producers at a premium rate, usually over a guaranteed period, ensuring a reasonable rate of return for the producer. The extra cost is shared among all energy users, thereby reducing it to a barely noticeable level. In addition, FiTs often include ‘tariff degression’, a mechanism according to which the price (or tariff) ratchets down over time.

   FiTs have been empirically proven to generate the fastest, lowest-cost deployment of renewable energy. This way PV significantly contributes to combating climate change securing energy supply, not to mention creating jobs and competitiveness.
   
   The FiT system means that the pay-back time for PV is reduced significantly. Germany has a good example of a FiT in place, and the country is world leader in installed PV power.

   This financing model has now been taken up widely around the world, as the table below shows:
   
   Countries, states and provinces that have adopted FITs
   Year Cumulative number Countries/states/provinces added that year

   
   

   1978	1	United States
   1990	2	Germany
   1991	3	Switzerland
   1992	4	Italy
   1993	3	Denmark, India
   1994	8	Spain
   1997	9	Sri Lanka
   1998	10	Sweden
   1999	13	Portugal, Norway, Slovenia
   2000	14	Thailand
   2001	16	France, Latvia
   2002	20	Austria, Brazil, Czech Republic, Indonesia, Lithuania
   2003	27	Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Korea, Slovak Republic, Maharashtra, (India)
   2004	33	Italy, Israel, Nicaragua, Prince Edward Island (Canada), Andhra, Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh (India)
   2005	40	Turkey, Washington (US), Ireland, China, India, (Karnataka, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh)
   2006	41	Ontario (Canada)
   2007	56	South Australia (Australia), Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Dominican Republic, Finland, Macedonia, Moldova, Mongolia, Uganda
   2008	69	Queensland (Australia); California (USA); Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal (India); Kenya; the Philippines; Tanzania; Ukraine
   2009	80	Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and Victoria (Australia); Hawaii, Oregon, and Vermont (USA); Japan; Kazakhstan; Serbia; South Africa; Taiwan
   2010	84	Bosnia and Herzegovina, Malaysia, Malta, United Kingdom

   Source: REN21, 2011FiTs can be shaped according to a country’s RE resources, its electricity distribution system and its RE targets.

8. Does PV technology need bright sunshine to work properly?

   A PV system needs daylight but not direct sunlight to work properly, however the power output is smaller. In fact, if a PV module is exposed to an artificial light source, it will also produce electricity.

   The light of the sun consists of both direct and indirect or diffuse light (which is the light that has been scattered by dust and water particles in the atmosphere). PV cells not only use the direct component of the light, but also produce electricity when the sky is overcast. It is a common misconception that PV only operates in direct sunshine and is therefore not suitable for use in temperate climates. This is incorrect: PV makes use of diffuse solar radiation as well as direct sunlight.
   
   The amount of useful electricity generated by a PV module is proportional to the intensity of light energy that falls onto the conversion area. The greater the available solar resource, the higher the electricity generation potential.

   Because the electrical output of a PV module is dependent on the light intensity to which it is exposed, it is certain that PV modules will tend to generate more electricity on bright days than when skies are overcast. Nevertheless, PV systems do not need direct sunlight to work, so even on overcast days a PV module will generate some electricity.

9. How much electricity can a PV system produce?

   The electricity production of a PV system depends on external (environmental conditions) and internal (technology, layout of the system) parameters.

   The production of a PV system depends on:

   • The power of the PV system
   • Orientation towards the sun
   • Geographic location
   • The tilt angle or inclination of the roof. For European countries, the average optimal inclination is 30°-35°
   • The irradiance (light intensity) value on site
   • The climate zone
   • The way how BIPV is structurally integrated in the building shell (ventilated/ non-ventilated)

   Shadows on the modules (even if they appear only at certain times of day) can reduce the gain of the whole system and should be avoided if possible.

   The map below represents the yearly sum of irradiation (‘raw’ solar energy) on a horizontal surface.
   Alternatively, the maps represent solar electricity (kWh) generated by a 1kWp system per year with horizontal (or inclined) modules.

   

   Source: http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/countries/europe.htm

10. What does grid parity mean?

    In light of decreasing solar electricity generation costs and increasing price for conventional electricity, solar power systems will equally become increasingly economic during the coming years. Over the next 10 years solar electricity will become cheaper than retail electricity (depending on location and electricity prices) for end electricity consumers.

    A considerable advantage of solar electricity is that it is mainly produced around midday when conventional electricity is particularly expensive. Solar electricity largely replaces expensive peak-load electricity at preferential customer prices, which is why it would be wrong to compare it with cheap base-load electricity.
    
    Grid parity (competitiveness with retail electricity prices) will be reached progressively from 2013 onwards in several European markets. Countries with the highest solar irradiation and higher electricity prices, such as Italy and Spain, have the potential to reach grid parity starting in 2013 and 2015 respectively. Grid parity is likely to be reached in Germany and France in 2015 as well and cover progressively most other EU countries up until 2020.
    
    Grid parity is defined as the moment at which, in a particular market segment in a specific country, the net earnings  of the electricity supply from a PV installation is equal to the long-term cost of receiving traditionally produced and supplied power over the grid. In other words, Grid parity is the moment at which it is equivalently profitable for an end consumer to buy a PV System and produce his own electricity without any direct incentives (FIT or net metering) than buying electricity from the grid over 25 years.

11. Do PV modules lose efficiency each year?

    The degeneration of PV modules varies according to the type of PV modules installed. The loss of power production during a life cycle of 20 to 25 years is estimated to be 10 to 20% for crystalline PV modules.

12. What is the carbon footprint of a PV system?

    When measuring the environmental impact of a product, it is important to take the direct and indirect impacts throughout the entire product life-cycle, from material sourcing, through manufacturing, transportation, construction, operation, dismantling and to product collection and recycling into account.

    PV systems have a very light carbon footprint; they have no direct CO2 emissions into air during operation. Small, indirect emissions are mainly linked to the energy required during the manufacturing process of the PV module. This depends on the amount of energy consumed during manufacturing and on the electricity mix (i.e. gas, fuel, nuclear, hydro) at the production sites. Other small indirect emissions are connected to the technical greenhouse gases used as process gases when manufacturing the PV module, its components or the manufacturing equipment.

    The carbon footprint (g CO2eq/kWh) will depend on the lifetime and the conversion efficiency of the PV system, the system design and its orientation, in addition to the solar irradiation where the relevant system is installed. Annual solar horizontal irradiation varies from approximately 800 kWh/m2 in Northern Germany to approximately 1700 kWh/m2 in Southern Italy and even up to 2500 kWh/m² (II) in the “Sunbelt area” resulting in higher electricity output for the same initial carbon input.

    The carbon footprint of PV systems - assuming a location in southern Europe - ranges from 16 to 32 gCO2 eq. per kWh compared to between 300 and 1000 g CO2 eq. per kWh when produced from fossil fuels.

    

13. Is it worthwhile using solar energy in Europe?

    Definitely! In Germany, for example, the average of the annual solar irradiation is 1000 kWh per square meter. With efficient solar power systems, this is sufficient to generate a considerable volume of electricity and heat from solar power.

    Unlike other electricity generation technologies, solar is a highly modular electricity generating technology, scalable to powers suited for a single household up to large-scale ground-mounted installations.
    
    Small-scale PV electricity in central Europe is up to twice as costly as large-scale PV electricity in southern Europe due to the combined benefits of economies of scale of large systems and higher irradiation in the South. Nevertheless, small-scale domestic 'northern' PV is today as cost-effective as large-scale 'southern' PV when incorporating the cost to deliver it to the domestic consumer.
    
    PV will become soon a competitive solution where it is needed (i.e where electricity is consumed).
    
    Hence it is worthwhile producing solar energy in Europe, not least because this makes Europe less dependent on energy imports but also because:

    • The fuel is free
    • It produces no noise, harmful emissions or polluting gases
    • PV systems are very safe and highly reliable
    • It brings electricity to remote rural areas
    • The energy pay-back time of a module is constantly decreasing
    • It creates thousands of jobs
    • It contributes to improving the security of Europe’s energy supply

14. Can renewable energy sources guarantee a secure power supply despite their dependence on the weather?

    Can renewable energy sources guarantee a secure energy supply despite their dependence on the weather?

    The best way forward to ensure a secure energy supply for the future is an energy mix of renewable energy sources and intelligent load management (smart grids) in combination with energy storage. This will enable renewable energy sources to ensure a secure, climate-friendly and sustainable energy supply.
    
    Solar power is particularly available during periods of peak load demand (midday and in summer) and is excellently complemented by wind power, where peak values are principally reached in winter. Further to this, biomass, hydropower and geothermal energy are continually available and counterbalance deficits.

15. What is the lifetime of a PV system?

    The estimated lifetime of a PV module is 30 years. Furthermore, the modules’ performance is very high providing over 80% of the initial power after 25 years which makes photovoltaic a very reliable technology in the long term.

    Most manufacturers in general propose performance guarantees on the modules after 20 years of 80% of the initial output power. As regards the electronic components and accessories (inverters), the guarantee usually does not exceed 10 years.

    But this doesn’t mean that PV systems do not produce energy after 20 – 25 years.

    Most PV systems installed more than 25 years ago still produce energy today!

16. What if there is a problem with the PV system?

    If a PV module has a defect, no longer produces electricity or produces much less electricity than before, it is generally covered by the manufacturer’s performance guarantee against a drop in efficiency of more than 20%.

    Most manufacturers indeed propose performance guarantees on modules of 20 and 25 years for 80% of the initial output power. On the electronic components and accessories (inverters), the guarantee usually does not exceed 10 years, although longer inverter insurances can be arranged.

17. Is solar energy more expensive than conventional energy?

    In the light of decreasing solar power generation costs and increasing costs for conventional electricity (due to oil and gas prices), solar power systems will become increasingly economic during the coming years.

    A considerable advantage of solar power is that it is mainly produced during the day when the demand is high and therefore conventional electricity is particularly expensive. Another important feature is that PV is normally produced close to demand; therefore, a high investment on extending the electricity infrastructure is not required.

    In the long term solar energy will be much cheaper than conventional energy. Nowadays, like all energy production technologies (coal, gas, nuclear etc.) in the past and present, solar energy still needs financial support to further develop the technology and thus reduce prices to become competitive.

    However, solar energy is already well on the way: whereas the costs for conventionally generated energy have constantly increased in recent years and – faced with finite resources – will continue to increase by a considerable extent, increasing mass production has enabled the cost of solar energy to drop by an average of more than 10% per year.

18. What contribution can solar electricity play world-wide with regard to total energy consumption?

    The solar PV market has been booming over the last years despite a dip in 2009. By the end of 2010 the global cumulative capacity was about 69.4 GWp, with 29.4 GWp added just in 2011.

    In the long term it is estimated that solar power could contribute to an increasing share of total energy consumption. With appropriate policies both in developed and developing countries, the European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) and Greenpeace have devised that in a joint scenario photovoltaic systems could produce enough energy to supply electricity to 3.7 million people globally by 2030.

    The Solar Generation report published by Greenpeace and EPIA in February 2011 concludes that solar electricity can contribute largely to the energy needs of two-thirds of the world’s population - including those in remote areas - by 2030.

    The report confirms the impressive growth of the solar energy sector and demonstrates its potential of becoming a global energy contributor. It estimates that over 1800 GW of photovoltaic systems will have been installed worldwide by 2030, which represents over 2600 TWh of electricity produced per year or 14% of global electricity demand.

    In theory, every country could provide for its own energy needs from local renewable energy sources many times over.

19. Can the solar industry also grow without government subsidies?

    Public incentives will no longer be required to help the development of energy produced by photovoltaic means in the long run/

    The solar industry will be capable of generating a high degree of growth without government subsidies in the foreseeable future.

    With increasing sales leading to economies of scale and efforts realized by producers to reduce the cost of photovoltaic products, it is expected that costs for photovoltaic energy will be competitive with electricity prices in southern Europe by 2015 and in most of Europe by 2020.

    Until then, the market introduction of solar energy is dependent on statutory frameworks if it is to become competitive and survive in the global market. The industry will require investment security for developing solar power manufacturing plants and for their high development input and, until then, consumers will require legally secure incentives to invest in installing solar systems. The cost reduction can be achieved through research development and large-scale implementation with cost-effective financing instruments.

20. What are Green Certificates?

    Green Certificate, also known as Renewable Energy Certificate (REC), is a tradable commodity certifying that a certain amount of electricity (normally sold to the customer) is generated using renewable energy sources. The following sources are considered as renewable: wind, solar, wave, tidal, geothermal, hydro and biomass Typically, one certificate represents the generation of 1 MWh of electric energy.

    Green Certificates represent the environmental value of the renewable energy generated. The certificates can be traded separately from the energy produced. Several countries use Green Certificates as a means to bring the support of green electricity generation closer to market economy instead of more bureaucratic investment support and FiTs. Such national trading schemes are in use for PV in e.g. Poland, Sweden, Belgium (Wallonia and Flanders), and some US states.

    In practice, producers, wholesalers, retailers or consumers (depending on who is obliged) can be obliged to supply or consume a certain percentage from renewable electricity sources. For each unit of renewable electricity (e.g. MWh), a certificate is granted to the producer.

    This certificate serves as proof that renewable electricity was delivered into the grid.

    The graph below shows the costs per MWh versus the certificate value. Some technologies will be excluded from a Green Certificate market, while mature technologies are stimulated (only fictitious values are used to show the impact).

    Unlike the FiT, specific for each technology, a Green Certificate has no technology-specific price.

    Instead of compensating specific generation costs of the technology, a number of technologies will generate windfall profits, meaning that the compensation is higher than their actual generation costs.

    

21. How long will the development of PV depend on FiTs?

    The major challenge for the renewable energy industry in general has been to make the cost of clean energy competitive with conventional energy. Householders or energy companies who wanted to install wind turbines or solar panels have been faced with lengthy pay-back times.
    Without increased consumer demand and political measures to facilitate access to the market, manufacturers of solar photovoltaic (PV) panels cannot produce the unit volumes that would be needed to bring prices down and drive technological innovation.

    The FiT has proven to be the most effective policy instrument in overcoming these barriers.
    The FiT allows the pay-back time for PV to be only years instead of decades (see also Q.7).
    In 2011, the majority of installed PV systems benefited from well-designed grant support, in particular the FiT mechanism. This provides fair remuneration to the investor and rewards the effort made in investing in a clean energy source. Solar energy is becoming more economically viable and should become cost-competitive with conventional energy by 2015 in southern European countries and by 2020 across most of Europe.

    Increasing customer’s demand and costs for conventional electricity, together with decreasing installation costs will make solar power systems increasingly economic during the coming years. During the next 5-10 years solar power will become cheaper (depending on location and electricity prices) for private households than conventional electricity. Thus solar power will become independent of subsidies much earlier than might be deemed at first glance.

    With stand-alone systems remote from the electricity grid, it is already worthwhile using solar technology today.

    The Renewable Energy Sources Directive reinforces the current legal framework and could facilitate the implementation of the FiT schemes throughout Europe.

    
    

    CCRES special thanks to

     ManagEnergy.net http://www.managenergy.net/actors/5074 

     EU Commission   http://ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm

     EU Sustainable Energy   http://www.eusew.eu/index.php?option=com_see_eventview&view=see_eventdetail&index=1&countryID=55&sort=-1&pageNum=0&eventid=3405

     European Photovoltaic Technology Platform http://www.eupvplatform.org

    
    

    Croatian Center of Renewable Energy Sources (CCRES)

HCOIE - STJECANJE STATUSA POVLAŠTENOG PROIZVOĐAČA

HRVATSKI CENTAR OBNOVLJIVIH IZVORA ENERGIJE


Stjecanje statusa povlaštenog proizvođača

Sve europske države bez izuzetka opredijelile su se da u svoje strategije energetskog razvitka ugrade planove značajnog povećanja korištenja obnovljivih izvora energije i kogeneracije i da implementiraju zakonodavni okvir u kojem će ti planovi biti ostvareni. Sve zemlje Europske unije imaju vlastitu strategiju u pogledu korištenja obnovljivih izvora energije.

Korištenjem obnovljivih izvora energije ostvaruju se interesi Republike Hrvatske u području energetike. Kako bih se ostvario sustav poticanja proizvodnje električne energije iz obnovljivih izvora energije i kogeneracije donesen je niz zakonskih i podzakonskih propisa od kojih su najvažniji:
•Zakon o energiji („Narodne novine”, broj: 68/2001, 177/2004, 76/2007, 152/2008),
•Zakon o tržištu električne energije („Narodne novine”, broj: 177/2004, 76/2007, 152/2008),
•Zakon o regulaciji energetskih djelatnosti („Narodne novine”, broj: 177/2004, 76/2007),
•Uredba o naknadama za poticanje proizvodnje električne energije iz obnovljivih izvora energije i kogeneracije („Narodne novine”, broj: 33/2007, 133/2007, 155/08, 155/09 i 8/2011),
•Uredba o minimalnom udjelu električne energije proizvedene iz obnovljivih izvora energije i kogeneracije čija se proizvodnja potiče („Narodne novine”, broj: 33/2007),
•Tarifni sustav za proizvodnju električne energije iz obnovljivih izvora energije i kogeneracije („Narodne novine”, broj: 33/2007 i 8/2011),
•Pravilnik o korištenju obnovljivih izvora energije i kogeneracije („Narodne novine”, broj: 67/2007),
•Pravilnik o stjecanju statusa povlaštenog proizvođača električne energije („Narodne novine”, broj: 67/2007).

Prema Zakonu o energiji povlašteni proizvođač je energetski subjekt koji u pojedinačnom proizvodnom objektu istodobno proizvodi električnu energiju i toplinsku energiju, koristi otpad ili obnovljive izvore energije na gospodarski primjeren način koji je usklađen sa zaštitom okoliša.

Prema Uredbi o minimalnom udjelu električne energije proizvedene iz obnovljivih izvora energije i kogeneracije čija se proizvodnja potiče Operator tržišta sklapa ugovore o otkupu električne energije s povlaštenim proizvođačima električne energije, koji prema posebnim propisima imaju pravo na poticajnu cijenu za proizvodnju električne energije iz postrojenja koja koriste obnovljive izvore energije i kogeneracijskih postrojenja, sve dok ukupna planirana proizvodnja električne energije iz postrojenja koja koriste obnovljive izvore energije i kogeneracijskih postrojenja ne dosegne minimalni udio.

Planirano je da do 31. prosinca 2010. godine minimalni udio električne energije proizvedene iz postrojenja koja koriste obnovljive izvore energije čija se proizvodnja potiče, iznosi 5,8 % u ukupnoj potrošnji električne energije. Svu električnu energiju koju proizvedu povlašteni proizvođači električne energije iz postrojenja koja koriste OIEK a čija se proizvodnja potiče, otkupljuje operator tržišta, odnosno preuzima svaki pojedini opskrbljivač na način i pod uvjetima propisanim Uredbom.

Tarifnim sustavom određuje se pravo povlaštenog proizvođača električne energije na poticajnu cijenu električne energije koju operator tržišta plaća za isporučenu električnu energiju proizvedenu iz postrojenja koja koriste obnovljive izvore energije i kogeneracijskih postrojenja. Tarifnim sustavom utvrđene su tarifne stavke i visina tarifnih stavki za električnu energiju proizvedenu iz postrojenja koja koriste obnovljive izvore energije i kogeneracijskih postrojenja, ovisno o vrsti izvora, snazi i drugim elementima isporučene energije, kao i način i uvjeti primjene tih elemenata.

Pravo na poticajnu cijenu stječe proizvođač električne energije koji koristi obnovljive izvore energije, odnosno kogeneraciju za proizvodnju električne energije pod uvjetom da je:
•ishodio rješenje o stjecanju statusa povlaštenog proizvođača električne energije, te
•sklopio s operatorom tržišta (HROTE) ugovor o otkupu električne energije.

Povlašteni proizvođač električne energije svoje pravo na poticajnu cijenu prema Tarifnom sustavu ostvaruje ispunjenjem uvjeta iz ugovora o otkupu električne energije kojeg je sklopio s Operatorom tržišta. Radi sklapanja ugovora o otkupu električne energije energetski subjekt podnosi operatoru tržišta, zahtjev uz koji mora priložiti:
•predugovor ili ugovor o priključenju na elektroenergetsku mrežu
•prethodno rješenje o stjecanju statusa povlaštenog proizvođača električne energije.

Ugovor o otkupu električne energije se sklapa se na rok važenja od 12 godina. Postojeća postrojenja koja koriste OIE za proizvodnju električne energije starija od 12 godina nemaju pravo na poticajnu cijenu. Operator tržišta sklapat će ugovore o otkupu električne energije uz poticajnu cijenu s povlaštenim proizvođačima električne energije dok ukupna planirana proizvodnja električne energije iz postrojenja koja koriste OIE ne ispuni minimalni udjel električne energije utvrđen propisom.

HRVATSKI CENTAR OBNOVLJIVIH IZVORA ENERGIJE ( HCOIE )

Željko Serdar
Voditelj udruženja

20kw Solar Photovoltaic PV Array - SOLAR SERDAR

20kw Solar Photovoltaic PV Array
SOLAR SERDAR






These pictures are of an installation of a 20 Kw Solar Photovoltaic PV Array (Electricity) . This Solar Photovoltaic PV Array was designed and installed by Extend Energy, LLC of Greensboro, NC. Please visit our website at www.ExtendEnergy.com to see how we can help your business lessen it 's carbon footprint and lower energy cost. Extend Energy...Renewable Energy Made Easy.

SOLAR SERDAR

Željko Serdar
Head of association

PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER PLANTS by SOLAR SERDAR

RENEWABLE ENERGY CENTER SOLAR SERDAR ( CRECSS )



PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER PLANTS IN CROATIA


In Republic of Croatia exists legislative frame for investments in power plants on renewable sources of energy according to Cratian governments by law for getting a status of privileged electricity producer and tariff system for electricity production from renewable sources of energy and cogeneration.
The photovoltaic systems are classified depending privileged energy prices in three categories:

1) 10 kW and less
2) 10,1 to 30 kW
3) over 30 kW

In reality that means PV s instalation up to 30 kW on family houses, warehouses and other factories, and over 30 kW installation on the ground (on grid).

Comparison shows following economic investment criteria:

a) SHARE OF INVESTMENT PVs ON THE ROOFS

85% facilities and installation (90% modules, 10% converters)
15% installation
Investment per 1 kW+vat=4,50 EURO app.

b) SHARE OF INVESTMENT PVs FOR BIG SOLAR POWER PLANTS

60% facilities and installation (80% modules, 10% converters, 10% installation)
10% project preparing, projects and studies
15% transformer station and connection
10% carriers construction and infrastructure
5% land,buying or renting with license building
Investment per 1 kW+vat=4 EURO app.

The small PVs on the roofs are the most effective in the Croatian regions with insolation under 1200kWp/h (northern parts of Croatia).On the coast and particulary hinterland of Dalmatia and the islands all kinds of PVs are effective because of the insolation much over 1200kWp/h including bigger photovoltaic systems.Particulary interesting are the special care areas because of the lower interest rates ( 4% Croatian Bank for Reconstruction and Development ), and later smaller taxes.More information on
http://solarserdar.blogspot.com/
and
http://solarserdar.wordpress.com/

Low costs of servicing and line connection with the investor and facility supplier are a guarantee of safety and reliablity for the business.
The recent growth of interest to invest in new power plants in Croatia resulted from implementation of laws and regulations that stimulate electricity production from renewable energy sources ( RES ).
Most of these plants tend to connect to the distribution network.

Distribution system operator HEP - ODS ltd.( DSO ) in cooperation with other entities;
HEP - TRANSMISSION SYSTEM OPERATOR ltd, Ministry of Economy, Labour and Enterpreneurship, The Croatian Energy Market Operator continues working on the adjustments and simplifying necessary procedures for connecting power plant to DSO network, as well as on defining the necessary technical requirements on connection of production unit to the power distribution network.

This document gives a procedure for a potential electric energy producer to go with DSO starting the first contact and finishing with a final connecting to the DSOs network. The document gives the actual experiance and current status of inplementation of given procedure; connecting the power plants to power distribution network.

CROATIAN RENEWABLE ENERGY CENTER SOLAR SERDAR ( CRECSS )

Željko Serdar
Head of business association
www.solar-serdar.com
solarserdar@gmail.com
solarserdar@yahoo.com

FRONIUS promoted by SOLAR SERDAR

RENEWABLE ENERGY CENTER SOLAR SERDAR


promote

FRONIUS


Welcome to Fronius USA LLC

Fronius Austria was established in 1946. Fronius USA was established in January of 2002. The founder of Fronius Austria had the vision to see a need for high quality, competitively priced welding machines in the European market.

During the span of time since, the Fronius Company has become not only a leading manufacturer of quality welding equipment, but as a leader in the technology of welding.

As a company, Fronius International GmbH (Austria) recognized the need to promote this technology on a worldwide basis. This brought about the formation of Fronius USA.

Fronius USA LLC has begun by introducing the Digital Revolution machines. The TransPuls Synergic and TransSynergic welder versions of the 2700, 4000 and 5000 model welding machines come complete with an American faceplate and synergic lines for common AWS standard filler metals.

Fronius USA LLC has also introduced production proven LaserHybrid, Twin Wire and TIG Hot Wire.

The quality certificate ISO 9001 of our production plant shows complete guarantee for highest, periodical controlled quality. Our products are manufactured according to the valid product standards and are provided with the UL / CSA approval.

Our office in Brighton Michigan will support your companies needs with service and spare parts, along with a Demonstration / Weldtest Lab for CMT, Tandem, Plasma, MIG and TIG welding.

Fronius USA LLC
Welding Technology Division
10421 Citation Drive
Suite 1100
Brighton, MI 48116
Tel: 810-220-4414
Fax: 810-220-4424
E-Mail: sales.usa@fronius.com

Technology in a leading hand
Fronius converts energy and is recognized as a technology leader in our USA divisions.

In the field of welding technology, Fronius is a competent partner to the international automotive industry and other metalworking industries where high quality is a major concern.
Its superior know-how has also established Fronius in the field of photovoltaics, where it produces high-quality solar electronics.

Welding technology division Products: Arc welding for crafts, trade and industry in manual and fully automatic welding applications.
Sales: Direct sales in USA.

Solar electronics division Products: Inverters and data communication solutions for grid-connected photovoltaic systems.
Sales: Direct sales in North America.

Grid-Connected PV Inverters
Solar energy is converted into electricity and fed into the public grid. Efficient, reliable, high power inverters form the heart of any PV system. In the development of PV inverters, Fronius has thought out new technologies, searched for innovative solutions, and has found completely new answers. The result: Highly functional grid tied inverters, which interact optimally with all solar modules.

Fronius IG. The reliable series of PV inverters.

Maximum flexibility with Fronius IG. The PV inverter family works exceptionally with all solar panels available on the market. The ingenious processor control - the Fronius IG Module-Manager™ software - and a large number of other enhancements makes them very versatile. They work reliably and efficiently in every class thanks to Fronius' remarkable experience and decades of research and development.

Maximum energy harvest. Cloudy or clear.
The first complete solution.
Reliable. Proven. Smart.

A strong addition to the family: The next generation Fronius IG Plus inverter builds on a successful model with multiple enhancements, including maximum power harvest, a built-in six circuit string combiner, integrated, lockable DC Disconnect, significantly improved efficiency, and unbeatable reliability. New, larger power classes expand the proven Fronius IG family (from 3.0 to 12 kW). And numerous advantages provide consistently high earnings. More info at http://solarserdar.blogspot.com/

System Monitoring
Fronius DATCOM is a user-friendly data communications system for individual PV system monitoring.

The hardware components are quick and easy to install, the software easy to operate. Because of its modular design, Fronius DATCOM can be upgraded at any time. Customized monitoring solutions, from basic equipment to complete system management, can be installed quickly and easily. Because every PV system operator wants to know how their investment in the system is doing.

Modular. Quick and easy to install. User-friendly.

Fronius Personal Display
Operating Manuals

Anyone who wants to keep up to date with the output data of their installation yet does not want to run to the inverter to read off the values every time, can now use the Personal Display.

Simply place it in the desired room at home and you can read off all the current data from up to 15 inverters at any time. Data transmission from the inverter to the Personal Display is executed via radio transmission. Each inverter to be monitored requires a Personal Display Card.

At night the Personal Display presents the collected data from the previous day.

Installation is simple: just insert the Personal Display Card into the Fronius inverter, attach the antenna on or close to the inverter, set up the Personal Display in the house and you're all set. More info at http://solarserdar.wordpress.com/

No holes and sealing, no costly laying of cables – just plug & play. The wireless radio link makes this possible, regardless of whether you use Fronius DATCOM or not.

Webcasts and Seminars
Skills lay the foundations for a successful future. There is a lot of know-how packed into each of our products – and we want to pass this know-how on to our customers.

Below you will find a detailed list of scheduled events. We hope you can join us and look forward to seeing you there!

Warranty process
At Fronius, we have been making electronics equipment for over a half a century. At our ISO 9001 certified production plants, we make only high quality products that we stand behind.

You will probably not encounter a problem with your FRONIUS Solar Inverter, but in the unlikely event that within 10 years from the original purchase, you discover a problem caused by defects in either workmanship or materials, we will be happy to see that it is repaired or replaced depending on what we decide would be best.

The FRONIUS Solar Inverters are designed to withstand normal wear and tear, but they are not indestructible. In the event that your inverter will need to be serviced, you must follow this policy and procedure for warranty returns and repairs:

The Installer in the field notes a Service issue. Installer calls Fronius Technical Support Representative at (810) 220-4414. Technical Support is available Monday through Friday, excluding holidays, from 6:00am to 6:00pm PST and weekends by appointment only.

Fronius Technical Support Representative determines whether the issue requires a replacement unit or component, and if so an RMA is issued during the call.

Information is collected regarding system information including serial number, where the replacement unit/component is to be delivered and where the potential Service Reimbursement would be used.

Fronius USA, LLC ships a replacement unit/component to the Installer.

The Installer replaces the non-functioning unit/component and returns the non-functioning unit/component back to Fronius within 14 days.

Fronius USA, LLC inspects the non-functioning unit/component within 14 days of receipt to see if the issue falls under the scope of the Warranty agreement and the Service Reimbursement program. If the issue meets both criteria, your Service reimbursement of $250.00 per qualifying RMA can be either a credit provided on your companies behalf to your Fronius Distributor or a check issued by Fronius to your company (sorry Fronius can not issue service reimbursement checks to individuals). Further details of this program can be found in the Fronius USA Premium 10 and 15 year Warranties.
More info at http://solarserdar.blogspot.com/

Planning aids
Planning an efficient photovoltaic system is a complex matter. Many different factors must be taken into account: from the selection of the module type, and the arrangement of the modules, up to the choice of the most suitable inverter, and many other parameters. It is best to get advice from a competent PV installation engineer. To get a first impression, take a look at the Fronius online planning aids.
Configuration examples
Options for diagnosis, analysis and monitoring ranging from small systems to megawatt systems.
Fronius DatCom Assistant
The DatCom Assistant is designed to help you in designing and installing a Fronius IG DatCom system.

Planning examples for PV system monitoring
Efficient planning of PV system monitoring on the basis of actual examples.
Fronius Configuration Tool
Comfortable software for the exact dimensioning of PV systems. Free to download and use!

Step-by-step
Seven simple steps to optimum PV system monitoring.
More info at http://solarserdar.wordpress.com/

Stocking Distributors
Fronius on hand


Not only has Fronius built up a global sales and service network, it has also trained special teams who are ready to address the concerns of our customers. Every single Fronius partner has been carefully selected to provide trustworthy advice and customer-oriented service. Pick a Fronius stocking distributor who can deliver the expertise to meet your needs.


Fronius Stocking Distributors
AEE Solar
1155 Redway Dr.
Redway, CA 95560
Tel: 800-777-6609
email: info@aeesolar.com
web: http://www.aeesolar.com/
Conergy
1730 Camino Carlos Rey Suite 103
Santa Fe, NM 87507
Tel:(888) 396-6611
email: info@conergy.com
web: http://www.conergy.us/
DC Power Systems, Inc.
1500 Valley House Drive, Suite 210
Rhonert Park, CA 94928 Tel: 800-967-6917
email: daniel@dcpower-systems.com
web: www.dcpower-systems.com
groSolar
warehouse locations:
White River Junction, VT
Jessup, MD
Durango , CO
Grass Valley, CA
Berkeley, CA
San Diego, CA
Tel: 800-GO-SOLAR or 800-467-6527
email: info@groSolar.com
web: http://www.grosolar.com/
Krannich Solar, Inc.
7000 Commerce Pkwy., Suite B
Mt. Laurel, NJ 08054
Tel. 856-802-0991
e-mail: info@usa.krannich-solar.com
web: usa.krannich-solar.com

Ontility
3403 N. Sam Houston Parkway
Suite 300
Houston, TX 77086
Tel. 877-558-7479
email: DISales@ONTILITY.com
web: ONHouston@ONTILITY.com




Solar Depot LLC - Petaluma Warehouse
1240 Holm Rd.
Petaluma, CA 94954
Tel: 800-822-4041
email: infodepot@solardepot.com
web: http://www.solardepot.com/

Solar Depot LLC - Sacramento Warehouse
8540 Morrison Creek Drive
Sacramento, CA 95828
Tel: 800-321-0101
email: jesse@solardepot.com
web: http://www.solardepot.com/

Solar Depot LLC - Corona Warehouse
280 N. Smith Ave.
Corona, CA 92880
Tel: 800-680-7922
email: roy@solardepot.com
web: http://www.solardepot.com/

SunWize Technologies
1151 Flatbush Road
Kingston, NY 12401-7011
Tel: 800-817-6527
email: info@sunwize.com
web: http://www.sunwize.com/

CROATIAN RENEWABLE ENERGY CENTER SOLAR SERDAR (CRECSS)

Željko Serdar
head of business association

www.solar-serdar
solarserdar@gmail.com
solarserdar@yahoo.com

ENERGY FOR FREE (croatian text)

HRVATSKI CENTAR OBNOVLJIVIH IZVORA ENERGIJE SOLAR SERDAR (CRECSS)



SVE ŠTO NAM TREBA – TU JE NA DOHVAT RUKE


Uz današnju tehnologiju i znanje ne moramo koristiti fosilna goriva niti išta drugo što zagađuje naš planet i škodi ljudima. Priroda nas svakodnevno i potpuno besplatno opskrbljuje velikim količinama sunca, vjetra i vode, a energija dobivena iz tih izvora čista je i nepresušna. Već u osnovnoj školi djeca uče o obnovljivim izvorima energije, ali ih nigdje ne uče da su fosilna goriva i alternativna energetska rješenja (hidrogen, biomasa i nuklearna energija) koja su na silu pogurana u prvi plan, nepotrebna i opasna, i da postoje samo kako bi održale profitne strukture koje je industrija stvorila.

Nafte, ugljena i ostalih eksploatiranih dobara sve je manje, a cijena im je usporedo s tom činjenicom sve veća i veća. Uz to, posljednjih je godina je sve jasnije kako je prevelikim iskorištavanjem fosilnih goriva čovjek značajno i najvjerojatnije nepopravljivo oštetio životni okoliš, ne samo sebe, već i svih vrsta na Zemlji.

Energija Sunca

Solarne energije ima toliko da jedan sat svjetlosti oko podneva sadrži više energije nego što čitav svijet potroši tokom jedne godine. Kada bismo mogli ”uhvatiti” samo 1% sunčeve energije, nikada ne bismo morali koristiti naftu, plin ili bilo što drugo. Dostupnost te energije je neupitna, tehnologiju za njezinu obradu imamo već dulje vrijeme, a jedina je prepreka pokvarena potreba onih koji žele udio u tržištu sa već uspostavljenom energetskom strukturom.

“…Kada bismo samo 3 posto teritorija Hrvatske prekrili Sunčevim pretvornicima u toplinsku i električnu energiju, dobili bismo oko osam puta više od današnje ukupne energetske potrošnje u Hrvatskoj”, piše Dr.sc. Natko Urli s Instituta “Ruđer Bošković” u svom tekstu objavljenom u biltenu Zeleni forum.

Energiju sunca može se prikupljati solarnim kolektorima koji služe za zagrijavanje vode i prostora, fotonaponskim ćelijama koje direktno pretvaraju sunčevu energiju u električnu i fokusiranjem sunčeve energije (koristi se u velikim energetskim postrojenjima).

Energija vjetra

Vjetar je zapravo oblik solarne energije. Sunce neravnomjerno zagrijava različite dijelove Zemlje, čija je površina nepravilna. To rezultira različitim tlakovima zraka, a vjetar nastaje zbog težnje za izjednačavanjem tlakova. Postoje dijelovi Zemlje na kojima pušu takozvani stalni (planetarni) vjetrovi i na tim područjima je iskorištavanje energije vjetra najisplativije. Dobre pozicije su obale oceana i pučina mora. Energija vjetra je dugo bila smatrana slabim i nepraktičnim izvorom jer ovisi o geografskom položaju. Ipak, Američko ministarstvo za energiju priznalo je 2007. godine da kada bi se u samo 3 od ukupno 50 američkih država iskorištavala energija vjetra čitava nacija bi bila snabdjevena strujom. Suvremene vjetroturbine postale su jako efikasne, a ne ispuštaju ugljični dioksid koji uzrokuje globalno zagrijavanje. Iskorištavanje energije vjetra je najbrže rastući segment proizvodnje energije iz obnovljivih izvora jer su postrojenja visoko pouzdana, nema troškova za gorivo i nema zagađivanja okoline. Loše strane su visoki troškovi izgradnje i promjenjivost brzine vjetra zbog koje se ne može garantirati isporučivanje energije. Za domaćinstva su zgodne male vjetrenjače snage do nekoliko desetaka kW. One se mogu koristiti kao dodatni izvor energije ili kao primarni izvor u udaljenim područjima. Kad se koriste kao primarni izvor nužno im se dodaju baterije u koje se energija sprema kada se generira više nego što se potroši. Velike vjetrenjače često se instaliraju u park vjetrenjača i preko transformatora spajaju na električnu mrežu.Više informacija na http://solarserdar.wordpress.com/

Energija vode

Energija vode je najznačajniji obnovljivi izvor energije, a ujedno i jedini koji je ekonomski konkurentan fosilnim gorivima i nuklearnoj energiji. U posljednjih 30-ak godina proizvodnja energije u hidroelektranama je utrostručena.

Ne može se koristiti posvuda jer podrazumijeva obilje brzo tekuće vode, a poželjno je i da je ima dovoljno cijele godine, jer se električna struja ne može jeftino uskladištiti. Da bi se poništio utjecaj oscilacija vodostaja grade se brane i akumulacijska jezera. To znatno diže cijenu cijele elektrane, a i diže se razina podzemnih voda u okolici akumulacije. Razina podzemnih voda ima dosta utjecaja na biljni i životinjski svijet, pa prema tome hidroenergija nije sasvim bezopasna za okoliš. Veliki problem kod akumuliranja vode je i zaštita od potresa, a u zadnje vrijeme i zaštita od terorističkog čina (za vrijeme Domovinskog rata Srbi su pokušali srušiti branu Peručkog jezera). Procjenjuje se da je iskorišteno oko 25 % svjetskog hidroenergetskog potencijala.

Energija plime i oseke

Energija plime i oseke je forma hidroenergije koja iskorištava spuštanja i dizanja razine mora. Elektična energija stvara se zahvaljujući generatorima, tj. podvodnim turbinama, postavljenim na područja s velikim morskim mijenama. Ovaj izvor energije ima ogroman potencijal za zbog ogromnih površina svjetskih oceana. Da bi energija plime i oseke funkcionirala na zadovoljavajućem nivou potrebni su vrlo veliki pomaci u mijenama, od barem 5 metara između plime i oseke, a malo je mjesta koja bi zadovoljavala takve uvjete. Elektrana La Rance u Francuskoj je najveća elektrana koja radi na principu energije plime i oseke, a ujedno je i jedina elektrana takve vrste u Europi. Smještena je u estuariju rijeke Rance u sjevernoj Francuskoj i stvara dovoljno energije za zadovoljavanje potrebe 240.000 francuskih domaćinstava. Glavni razlog zašto energija plime i oseke nije našla mjesto među komercijalnim obnovljivim izvorima energije, usprkos neospornom potencijalu je naravno novčana neisplativost. Nedostatak je i činjenica da dnevno mogu raditi samo desetak sati, točnije za vrijeme kad se plima diže, odnosno oseka spušta. No, to i nije toliki problem zato što su plima i oseka potpuno predvidljive pojave, tako da se lako može isplanirati vrijeme rada tih elektrana.

Energija valova

Energija valova je oblik kinetičke energije koja postoji u kretanju valova u oceanu. Ta energija može biti iskorištena da pokrene turbine, a postoji dosta mjesta gdje su vjetrovi dovoljno snažni da proizvedu stalno kretanje valova. Procjenjuje se da globalni potencijal ovog vida energije može dostići proizvodnju i do 80,000 TW/h (teravat-satova) godišnje. To znači da se 50% ukupne potrošnje energije na planeti može pokriti samo od ovog izvora. Glavni problem s energijom valova jest činjenica da se taj izvor energije ne može ravnomjerno koristiti u svim dijelovima svijeta. Ipak, postoje mnoga područja s vrlo visokom stopom iskoristivosti, kao što su primjerice zapadna obala Škotske, sjeverna Kanada, južna Afrika, Australija te sjeverozapadna obala sjeverne Amerike. Tehnologije za iskorištavanje energije valova nisu samo instalirane na obali, već i daleko na pučini.

Konverzija termalne energije oceana

Konverzija termalne energije oceana je metoda stvaranja elektriciteta koja iskorištava temperaturnu razliku između duboke i plitke vode. Ukoliko postoji veća temperaturna razlika, veća je i efikasnost čitave metode, a minimalna temperaturna razlika treba biti oko 3°C. Ova metoda ima dugu povijest, još s početka 19. stoljeća. Većina stručnjaka smatra kako bi ova metoda dala dobar omjer ulaganja i koristi jer bi se sa već postojećim tehnologijama mogao proizvoditi gigawat električne energije. No to ipak nije slučaj jer OTEC zahtijeva ogromne, skupe cijevi velikih promjera koje se moraju postaviti barem kilometar duboko u more kako bi mogle dovoditi hladniju vodu sa većih dubina, što je naravno preskupo.

Oceani predstavljaju 2/3 površine zemlje i predstavljaju ogroman potencijal vrijedan daljnjeg istraživanja kako bi se povećala isplativost ulaganja i smanjili ogromni početni troškovi, što je ujedno i najveća mana ovog obnovljivog izvora. Važno je naglasiti da plimni, valni, solarni i izvor energije vjetra ne zahtjevaju da se bilo koja druga energija prije njih mora upotrijebiti ne kao ugalj, nafta, biomasa, hidrogen, i svi drugi. Samo ova četiri izvora energije, efikasnim iskorištavanjem kroz tehnologiju mogli bi snabdjevati svijet zauvijek.Više informacija na http://solarserdar.blogspot.com/

Geotermalna energija

Toplina u unutrašnjosti Zemlje rezultat je formiranja planeta iz prašine i plinova prije više od četiri milijarde godina, a radioaktivno raspadanje elemenata u stijenama kontinuirano regenerira tu toplinu, pa je prema tome geotermalna energija obnovljivi izvor energije. Osnovni medij koji prenosi toplinu iz unutrašnjosti na površinu je voda ili para, a ta komponenta obnavlja se tako da se voda od kiša probija duboko po raspuklinama i tamo se onda zagrijava i cirkulira natrag prema površini, gdje se pojavljuje u obliku gejzira i vrućih izvora. Izvještaj o geotermalnoj energiji iz 2006. godine sa MIT-a (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) govori o tome da je 13,000 ZJ (zeta džula) trenutno dostupno u zemlji sa mogućnošću da se 2,000 ZJ može s lakoćom sprovesti u cijevi koristeći naprednu tehnologiju. Ukupna potrošnja energije svih zemalja na planeti je oko 0,5 ZJ godišnje! Ovo znači da Zemlja može biti opskrbljena energijom narednih 4,000 godina samo od ovog izvora.

Zemljina toplina može biti obnavljana generacijama, dakle možemo ju koristiti zauvijek.

Biomasa

Biomasa je obnovljiv izvor energije, a čine ju brojni proizvodi biljnog i životinjskog svijeta. Može se izravno pretvarati u energiju izgaranjem te tako proizvesti vodena para za grijanje u industriji i kućanstvima te dobivati električna energija u malim termoelektranama. Fermentacija u alkohol je zasad najrazvijenija metoda kemijske konverzije biomase. Bioplin nastao fermentacijom bez prisutnosti kisika sadrži metan i ugljik te se može upotrebljavati kao gorivo, a ostali suvremeni postupci korištenja energije biomase uključuju i pirolizu, rasplinjavanje te dobivanje vodika. Prednosti biomase u odnosu na fosilna goriva su manja emisija štetnih plinova i otpadnih voda, zbrinjavanje i iskorištavanje otpada i ostataka iz poljoprivrede, šumarstva i drvne industrije, smanjenje uvoza energenta, ulaganje u poljoprivredu i nerazvijena područja i povećanje sigurnosti opskrbe energijom.

RENEWABLE ENERGY CENTER SOLAR SERDAR (CRECSS)

solarserdar@gmail.com
solarserdar@yahoo.om
www.solar-serdar.com

LEGISLATIVE for RENEWABLE ENERGY - SOLAR SERDAR

RENEWABLE ENERGY CENTER SOLAR SERDAR



Important Legislative Market Drivers:

Greenhouse Gas legislation that requires cities and businesses to reduce fossil fuel use.

Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) requires utilities to produce 33% of their energy with renewable energy by 2020.

Distributed Generation-providing energy at the load. Not tied to transmission lines.

Feed-in-tariffs. Pricing renewable energy to include certain externalities and to encourage points 1-3 above.
SB 32 coming online in 4th quarter of 2010. MW systems.

Environmental. Air and water quality standards not met with non-renewable electrical generation fuels in new facilities.

RPS and Utilities

The Renewable Portfolio Standard requires retail sellers (defined as investor‐owned utilities, electric service providers, and community choice aggregators) to increase renewable energy as a percentage of their retail sales to 20 percent by 2010. State law also requires publicly owned utilities to implement the standard but gives them flexibility in developing specific targets and timelines. In November 2008, Governor Schwarzenegger raised California’s renewable energy goals to 33 percent by 2020 in his Executive Order S‐14‐08. In July 2009, the California Public Utilities Commission reported that the three investor‐owned utilities were supplying approximately 13 percent of their aggregated total sales from eligible renewable resources as of 2008, far below the 20 percent required by 2010. Publicly owned utilities are showing some progress in renewable energy procurement with expectations for the 15 largest publicly owned utilities of 12.4 percent of RPS eligible renewable retail sales by 2011, but this progress is still far short of the renewable target.

California Energy Commission Recommendation

Because of the importance of achieving the state’s RPS goals, the IEPR Committee reinforces the need for the California Public Utilities Commission to be committed to imposing penalties on investor‐owned utilities for non‐compliance with RPS targets.

RPS Legislation

Senate Bill 1078 (Sher, Chapter 516, Statutes of 2002): Established California’s Renewables Portfolio Standard (RPS) requiring retail sellers of electricity (IOUs, community choice aggregators, electric service providers) to procure 20 percent of retail sales from renewable energy by 2017. The publicly owned utilities are encouraged, but not required, to meet .

Energy Action Plans I (2003) and II (2005): The first Energy Action Plan recommended accelerating the RPS deadline to 20 percent by 2010, and the second recommended a further goal of 33 percent renewables by 2020.

Senate Bill 107 (Simitian, Chapter 464, Statutes of 2006): Required the IOUs to meet the “20 percent by 2010” goal as recommended in the Energy Action Plan I. The bill expanded the RPS reporting requirements of the publicly owned utilities to the Energy Commission and expanded RPS eligibility of out‐of‐state renewable resources.



Executive Order S‐06‐06 (2006): Established a biomass target of 20 percent within the established RPS goals for 2010

Executive Order S‐14‐08 (2008): Established accelerated RPS targets (33 percent by 2020) as recommended in the Energy Action Plan II. The order also called for the formation of the Renewable Energy Action Team, comprised of the Energy Commission, Department of Fish and Game, Bureau of Land Management, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Through the team, the Energy Commission and the Department of Fish and Game are to prepare a plan for renewable development in sensitive desert habitat.

Executive Order S‐21‐09 (2009): Directs the ARB to work with the CPUC, the California ISO, and the Energy Commission to adopt regulations increasing California’s RPS to 33 percent by 2020. The ARB must adopt these regulations by July 31, 2010.

NOTE. The 33 percent RPS target is expected to provide 15.2 percent of the total GHG reductions needed to meet the AB 32 goal of achieving 1990 emissions levels by 2020. The state will not meet its greenhouse gas reduction targets if it does not meet the 33% RPS.More info at http://solarserdar.blogspot.com/

Climate Chnage and Greenhouse Gases (GHG)

Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is the first supply‐side resource in the loading order and a key strategy for achieving a significant portion of the Climate Change Scoping Plan target for greenhouse gas emission reductions from the electricity sector. Increasing the amount of renewable energy in California’s electricity mix also reduces the risks and costs associated with potentially high and volatile natural gas prices while also reducing the state’s dependence on imported natural gas used to generate electricity. Renewable resources also provide other benefits such as economic development and new employment opportunities, benefits that are becoming increasingly important given the current recession.

Source, California Energy Commission

Distributed Generation

Increased use of distributed generation is another strategy for meeting the state’s GHG reduction goals. Distributed energy systems are complementary to the traditional electric power system and include small scale power generation technologies (for example, CHP, photovoltaic, small wind turbines) located close to where the energy is being used. Distributed generation has many advantages, including increased grid reliability, energy price stability, and reduced emissions, especially in industrial applications. California is leading the nation in implementing policies to encourage distributed generation development. The following policies were implemented to encourage the use of distributed generation systems as a way of meeting the state’s climate change goals while increasing reliability:




Distributed Generation and Feed-in Tariff (FIT) Legislation

Senate Bill 1 (Murray, Chapter 132, Statutes of 2006): This bill enacted the Governor’s Million Solar Roofs program with the overall goal of installing 3,000 MW of solar PV systems.

Increasing CHP is a key strategy for displacing conventional power sources. To help track the state’s CHP goals, the ARB will report on the GHG emissions reductions resulting from the increase of electricity generated from CHP. Also, in December 2009, the Energy Commission is scheduled to adopt guidelines to establish the technical criteria for CHP system eligibility for programs developed by IOUs and publicly owned utilities.More info at http://solarserdar.wordpress.com/

SB 32 Creates the state’s first European feed-in tariff with rates to be set by the CPUC by July 2010. Signed by Governor in October 2009.

AB 1106 Feed In-Tariff is a full German/Spain equivalent feed in-tariff that has passed the state Assembly and is now in the Senate Appropriations Committee. If approved by this committee in early 2010 it will go for a final vote in the Senate. If approved by the Senate it will be sent to the Governor for signature.

Environmental Issues

While reducing greenhouse gas emissions is of paramount concern, it is not the only environmental issue facing California’s electricity sector. The State Water Resources Control Board has issued a draft policy to phase out the use of once-through cooling in the state’s 19 coastal power plants to reduce impacts on marine life from the pumping process and the discharge of heated water. Another issue is the lack of emission credits in the South Coast Air Quality Management District that makes it difficult to obtain the necessary permits to build reliable replacement power before aging, less-efficient power plants can be retired or repowered.

Despite efforts to expand renewable generation, recent utility RPS procurement forecasts for 2010 and 2020 indicate that substantial challenges remain. As of June 2009, the CPUC has approved 116 RPS contracts totaling 8,334 MW; of that approved capacity, a little over 10 percent – 860 MW – has come on‐line and is delivering energy to the grid. An additional 13 contracts for 5,941 MW are under review.56 While the IOUs have made progress adding renewable contracts to their portfolios, they do not expect to meet the 2010 target and will be significantly below the 33 percent target in 2020 unless they add renewable resources at a much faster pace.

California Energy Commission staff estimate that if the ARB Climate Change Scoping Plan goals are achieved for energy efficiency, CHP, and roof‐top solar, the state will need 45,000 GWhs of additional renewable energy to meet the RPS goals.

California Energy Commission Comments on DG

The 2007 Integrated Energy Policy Report (IEPR) identified the need to expand and upgrade California’s distribution system to prepare for the resource mix needed to reach GHG emission reduction goals. With state policies that rely increasingly on preferred resources, the distribution system must be able to integrateand efficiently use distributed resources. With potentially billions of dollars being spent on distribution system upgrades, the state needs to ensure that those upgrades will facilitate meeting the goals for increased renewable resources.More info at http://solarserdar.blogspot.com/

To support the goal of integrating increased quantities of both renewable and nonrenewable distributed generation into the grid, the Energy Commission recommends:

The Energy Commission and the CPUC should open a joint proceeding to develop a comprehensive understanding of the importance of distribution system upgrades, not only to assure reliability, but also to support the cost‐effective integration and interoperability of large amounts of distributed energy for both on‐site use and wholesale export. The proceeding should focus on the following:

1.Requiring utilities to provide an assessment of the areas or locations on their systems in which distributed generation for both on‐site use and/or export would be of greatest value. The studies should report on operational characteristics that would have greatest value; tools, data and criteria used to select these locations; and obstacles to deploying specific types of distributed generation in these areas (for example, high density residential areas).

2.Reviewing and requiring the use of distribution system operational models and economic/capital investment models in utility rate cases.

3. Requiring utilities to use these tools to demonstrate that investments in advanced grid technologies will support grid modernization goals, including from a standpoint of cost effectiveness.

4. Implementing and validating open International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) communication standards for distributed energy resources before proprietary solutions become established. Although these standards are not required in the United States, they are being implemented in Europe where most countries are mandated to use IEC standards. California can leverage European efforts to develop and implement these standards and ensure that the state benefits from the widespread use of communication standards. Once implemented for photovoltaic, the same communication standards can be used for other renewable systems, such as wind, fuel cells, and biomass, as well as for distribution automation equipment.

5.Because net metering is an essential tool for making renewable distributed generation a cost‐effective choice for customers and for maximizing the development of in‐state renewable generation that requires no transmission upgrades, the Legislature should require utilities to increase their net energy metering cap to 5 percent to allow reasonable growth and support for the deployment of renewable generation in California. The CPUC is required to report to the Legislature and the Governor by January 1, 2010, on the costs andbenefits of net energy metering. Once that report has been completed and reviewed, increasing the cap beyond 5 percent can be evaluated.More info at http://solarserdar.wordpress.com/

Role of Distributed Resources

Although improvements are underway to streamline siting and permitting for transmission and renewable energy facilities, there is a risk that a resource mix depending heavily on utility‐scale solar electric projects in remote areas may be delayed beyond 2020. Shifting to a resource mix including both large‐scale central station projects and distributed generation (DG) would help the state meet its goal of 33 percent of retail sales from renewable energy by 2020 and lay the foundation for achieving the Governor’s Executive Order goal of 80 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from 1990 levels by 2050.

Distributed renewable resources include ground‐mounted solar projects up to 20 MW in size; distributed biogas capacity from wastewater processing, landfill gas, animal manure digester gas, and food processing; distribution‐scale solid fuel biomass; other clean stand‐alone technologies; and distribution‐level CHP that reduces GHG emissions through the joint production of electricity and energy needed to meet industrial and commercial thermal loads.

Renewable projects that interconnect to the grid at the distribution level can come on‐line faster than large projects (greater than 20 MW) that interconnect to the transmission system directly.

Typically DG facilities do not require new transmission investment, extensive environmental reviews, or a lengthy permitting process.

Recent studies indicate substantial technical potential for distribution‐level generation resources located at or near load. A 2007 estimate from the Energy Commission suggests that there is roof space for over 60,000 MW of PV capacity, although the study did not factor in roof space that is shaded or being used for another purpose.The California Renewable Energy Transmission Initiative Phase 1B Final Report (RETI Phase 1B Report) included a preliminary estimate suggesting that as much as 27,500 MW of 20‐MW ground‐mount PV projects could be located at substations in California.246 The California Biomass Collaborative estimates that there is technical potential for about 1,700 MW of distributed biogas capacity in California from wastewater processing, landfill gas, animal manure digester gas, and food processing Studies by the CPUC and the Energy Commission have included scenarios of high penetration of distributed resources. The CPUC Energy Division Preliminary 33 Percent Implementation Analysis included a scenario with about 14 gigawatt (GW) of PV systems under 20 MW and also included about 250 MW of distributed biogas capacity. Energy Commission staff analysis included a scenario that met one‐fifth of the 33 percent goal with biopower, consistent with the Governor’s Executive Order S‐06‐06. This scenario included about 8 GW of distributed solar and about 190 MW of distributed biopower, although this excludes biomass projects identified by the RETI Phase 1B report as having fuel to support more than 20 MW of solid‐fuel biomass capacity.

Simulations and system analysis have shown that a significant amount of wholesale distributed renewable energy could be integrated into the California distribution grid. A recent analysis byE3 for the CPUC Energy Division found that approximately 69 percent of the California IOUsubstations can interconnect projects of 10 MW or smaller. Another study by General Electric onthe effect of distributed renewable energy on feeder lines found that limits could range from 15percent to 50 percent of feeder capacity depending on location and distribution. In addition,preliminary staff analysis suggests that about 10 GW to 11 GW of wholesale distributed renewable energy could be connected at the distribution level, at substations, or on distribution feeders.

So far, the potential for distributed resources to contribute to the RPS goals remains largely untapped. As of July 2009, there are more than 560 MW of PV and more than 300 MW of biopower installed in California at the distribution level (20 MW or less per project). While mostof the currently installed PV is not eligible for the RPS, much of the biopower is. IOUs have active RPS contracts for more than 180 MW of projects 20 MW and smaller; this is less than 2 percent of IOU RPS contracts. Publicly owned utilities have active RPS contracts for almost 150MW of projects 20 MW and smaller; this is about 14 percent of publicly owned utility RPS contracts.

Distributed energy resources (DER) are parallel and stand-alone electric generation units located within the electric distribution system at or near the end user. DER can be beneficial to both electricity consumers and if the integration is properly engineered, the energy utility.

RENEWABLE ENERGY CENTER SOLAR SERDAR (CRECSS)

Željko Serdar

Head of business association
solarserdar@gmail.com
solarserdar@yahoo.com
www.solar-serdar.com

HROTE promoted by CCRES

CROATIAN ENERGY MARKET OPERATOR (HROTE)

promoted by



CROATIAN CENTER of RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (CCRES)

About HROTE
Croatian Energy Market Operator (HROTE) started to operate on 4 April 2005. HROTE performs activities of organizing the electricity market as a public service, under the supervision of the Croatian Energy Regulatory Agency (HERA).

HROTE's main responsibilities include:

issuing Electricity Market Rules,
registration of contractual obligations among market participants,
keeping records of eligible customers,
keeping records of suppliers,
preparation of a day ahead market plan,
settlement of balancing energy,
collecting fee for incentivizing the renewables and cogeneration from suppliers and its distribution to eligible producers,
analysing the electricity market and recommending measures for its improvement.
The company is financed according to the Decision on fee for electricity market organization (Official Gazette 94/2007). The fee is determined by the Croatian Government at the proposal of the Ministry of Economy, Labour and Entrepreneurship.

Croatian electricity market
Adoption of the Energy Act, the Act Amending the Energy Act, the Electricity Market Act and the Energy Activity Regulation Act created necessary conditions for gradual opening of the national electricity market.

There is only one electricity market in Croatia. In the initial phase of the market opening, the model of bilateral market has been chosen and the electricity trading has been carried out through bilateral contracts.

Electricity Market Rules regulate relations and activities in the electricity market, as well as determine obligations and duties of market participants in the process of electricity trading.
These Rules are binding for all electricity market participants.

Market model
The framework for performing energy activities in the electricity market is established by energy related acts, while secondary legislation elaborates legal provisions.

In Croatia we distinguish:

public service obligation of tariff customers' electricity supply,
electricity market.
According to the Electricity Market Act, tariff customers are supplied by the energy entity having public service obligation of tariff customers' electricity supply. This task is performed by HEP Group. Electricity prices for tariff customers are regulated by the Energy Act and the Tariff System for Energy Activities Performed as Public Services. The number of tariff customers shall decrease by gradual market opening.
More info at http://solarserdar.blogspot.com/.

Model of bilateral market, which is chosen in Croatia, is based on electricity trading through bilateral contracts. Contractual parties in the electricity supply contract are the customer and the supplier. Bilateral contracts concerning electricity trade (purchase or sale) are concluded between the supplier, the trader or the producer. Besides the supply contract or the electricity trade contract, the eligible customer and producer shall conclude a contract for using the network with HEP-Operator prijenosnog sustava (HEP-TSO) or with HEP-Operator distribucijskog sustava (HEP-DSO) depending on the voltage level the eligible customer is connected to.

HEP-TSO is in charge of procuring electricity necessary for system balancing. Each producer, supplier and trader is responsible to HEP-TSO for deviations from its contractual schedule.

Market participants
A market participant in the Croatian electricity market is any producer, supplier, trader or eligible customer.

A producer, supplier and trader must have a license for performing energy activity, issued by the Croatian Energy Regulatory Agency.

The organization of the electricity market, electricity transmission and distribution are regulated activities performed as public services:

HROTE is responsible for the organization of the electricity market,
HEP-Operator prijenosnog sustava (HEP-TSO) is responsible for electricity transmission, maintenance, development and construction of transmission system, and power system control,
HEP-Operator distribucijskog sustava (HEP-DSO) is responsible for electricity distribution, maintenance, development and construction of distribution system.
Regulated energy activities performed as public services also include electricity production for tariff customers and electricity supply of tariff customers. Both activities are performed by HEP Group as a part of a common and integral task of the energy entity having public service obligation of tariff customers' electricity supply.

Change of supplier
Procedure for change of supplier is prescribed by the General Conditions of Electricity Supply (Official Gazette 14/2006). Procedure is free of charge unless nonstandard services of HEP-TSO or HEP-DSO are required. In such a case, all nonstandard services have to be paid according to the price list for nonstandard services, which is published by HEP-TSO or HEP-DSO.

Balancing energy
During realization of bilateral supply contracts and electricity trade contracts deviations between realized and scheduled values are present. Since the power system operation is based on the balance between the electricity demand and supply, there is a constant need for system balancing. The real time system balancing is responsibility of HEP-Operator prijenosnog sustava (HEP-TSO).

In order to cover power system deviations in each hour, HEP-TSO offers balancing energy for sale or purchase to market participants. HROTE calculates the balancing energy, and HEP-TSO according to the calculation charges balancing costs from balance responsible parties. Balance responsible parties are any producer, supplier and trader. Each of them shall enter into the balancing energy contract with HEP-TSO. Calculation and billing of balancing energy are carried out in accordance with Balancing Energy Rules.More info at http://solarserdar.wordpress.com/.

Renewables and cogeneration

“You see, we should make use of the forces of nature and should obtain all our power in this way. Sunshine is a form of energy, wind and sea currents are manifestations of this energy. Do we make use of them? Oh no! We burn forests and coal, like tenants burning down our front door for heating. We live like wild settlers and not as though these resources belong to us.“

Thomas A. Edison, 1916

The incentive fee for electricity production from renewable energy sources and cogeneration
According to the Ordinance on Fees for Incentivizing Electricity Production from Renewable Energy Sources and Cogeneration (Official Gazette 33/2007),), that was passed by the Government of Republic of Croatia, the incentive fee is collected from all electricity customers in Croatia starting from 1 July 2007.

The collected fees are used by Croatian Energy Market Operator for payment of incentive price to eligible producers for electricity delivered to the power system, in compliance with the Tariff System for the Production of Electricity from Renewable Energy Sources and Cogeneration (Official Gazette 33/2007).

The incentive fee is collected through usual electricity payments, hence from tariff customers through money order of HEP-Operator distribucijskog sustava d.o.o. (by specific distribution area) and from eligible customers by their suppliers.

The amount on electricity bills due to incentive fee for year 2010 is 0.005 kn per kilowatt-hour (kn/kWh) + VAT, according to the Ordinance on the Amendments to the Ordinance on Fees for Incentivizing Electricity Production from Renewable Energy Sources and Cogeneration (Official Gazette 155/2009). Every customer can easily calculate the amount he/she pays for incentivizing electricity production from renewable energy sources and cogeneration by multiplying the electricity consumed (kWh) and the incentive fee (kn/kWh).More info at http://solarserdar.blogspot.com/.

Eligible producer
An eligible producer is an energy entity producing both electrical and thermal energy in a single production facility, using waste or renewable energy sources in an economically appropriate manner harmonized with environmental protection.

HEP–Operator prijenosnog sustava and HEP–Operator distribucijskog sustava shall take the entire amount of generated electricity from any eligible producer. The energy entity responsible for electricity supply shall off-take a minimal share of electricity generated by incentivized eligible producers in accordance with the conditions prescribed in the Ordinance on a Minimal Share of Incentivized Electricity Production from Renewable Energy Sources and Cogeneration.

The status of eligible producer is acquired by the decision of the Croatian Energy Regulatory Agency in accordance with the Rules on Acquiring the Status of Electricity Eligible Producer prescribed by the Minister of Economy, Labour and Entrepreneurship.

An eligible producer, apart from hydropower plants larger than 10 MW, can acquire the right to the incentive price prescribed by the Tariff System for the Production of Electricity from Renewable Energy Sources and Cogeneration.

According to the Ordinance on Fees for Incentivizing Electricity Production from Renewable Energy Sources and Cogeneration eligible and tariff electricity customers shall pay the incentive fee for electricity production from renewable energy sources and cogeneration. The incentive fee shall be specified on electricity bill, as well as other fees according to the Energy Act.
Croatian Energy Market Operator:

enters into electricity purchase contracts, with incentivized eligible producers, for electricity produced from renewable energy sources and cogeneration,
enters into contracts with all the suppliers in order to implement Ordinance on a Minimal Share of Incentivized Electricity Production from Renewable Energy Sources and Cogeneration,
collects from suppliers the incentive fee for electricity production from renewable energy sources and cogeneration,
settles and allocates the incentive price to eligible producers in accordance with concluded contracts. More info at http://solarserdar.wordpress.com/.

Learn more

"Knowledge is of two kinds. We know a subject ourselves,
or we know where we can find information on it. "

Samuel Johnson (1709 - 1784)

Renewable Energy Sources
Renewable Energy Sources (RES) are energy sources that are preserved in nature and can be completely or partially renewed, in particular, hydropower, wind energy, non-accumulated solar energy, biofuel energy, biomass energy, biogas energy, geothermal energy, wave energy, tidal energy, landfill gas or sewage treatment plant gas energy.

One of European Union (EU) strategic objectives is to incentivize the use of RES as it is in accordance with the sustainable development strategy and it helps to accomplish the goals of the Kyoto Protocol regarding reduction of greenhouse gases emissions. On 27 September 2001, the EU adopted an important legislative document – Directive 2001/77/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources in the internal electricity market.

The purpose of this Directive is:

to improve security of supply by means of reducing dependence on imported fuels,
evironmental protection,
to enable regional development thereby increasing the employment by creating new jobs.
The Directive requires from Member States to accept the measures and incentives in order to reach the objective of 22.1% share of electricity produced from RES in the total EU gross electricity consumption by the year 2010.

The Ministry of Economy, Labour and Entrepreneurship, in the Regulation on a minimal share of incentivized electricity production from renewable energy sources and cogeneration, has set a goal to achieve 5.8% as the minimum share of electricity produced from RES in total consumption in Croatia by 31 December 2010. Since "green energy" includes the electricity generated by hydropower plants, about 50% of electricity generated in Croatia comes from RES.

However, since the share of other RES is minimal, the intention is to incentivize electricity production from RES through support mechanisms.

Cogeneration
Cogeneration (Combined Heat and Power, or CHP) is a simultaneous generation of two useful energy forms (electrical and thermal) in a single process. Thermal energy, which remains unused in a conventional power plant (or is released into the environment affecting it adversely), is used in numerous industrial processes or, more often, for heating buildings or even entire blocks. Thermal energy can be used for steam production, water or air heating. One way to use cogeneration is also trigeneration where some energy is used for cooling. They can be fired by natural gas, biomass, lumber or hydrogen (for fuel cells). The choice of cogeneration technology depends on fuel availability and price.

Basic cogeneration advantage is increased fuel efficiency in comparison with conventional power plants which are used only for electricity production, as well as industrial systems which are used only in steam or hot water production for technical processes. Total cogeneration efficiency ranges from 70 to 85% (27-45% electricity and 40-50% thermal energy) while total efficiency in conventional power plants ranges from 30 to 51% (electricity).More info at http://solarserdar.blogspot.com/

Cogenerations have a significant role as a distributed energy source due to their positive effects: lower network losses, decrease of transmission congestion, improvement of voltage quality, increase of electricity supply reliability. Negative environmental effects are also diminished. Commercially available CHP technologies include steam and gas turbines, microturbines, reciprocating engines, Stirling engine and fuel cells with a wide capacity ranging from 1 kW for Stirling engine to 250 MW for gas turbines.

On 11 February 2004, an important European energy legislative document was adopted – Directive 2004/8/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the promotion of cogeneration based on a useful heat demand in the internal energy market.

The purpose of this Directive is the following:

promoting high-efficiency cogeneration based on useful heat demand (savings of primary energy of at least 10% obtained by combined production instead of separate production of heat and electricity),
decreasing network losses,
decreasing greenhouse gases emissions.
In accordance with the above mentioned, the Ministry of Economy, Labour and Entrepreneurship, in the Regulation on a minimal share of incentivized electricity production from renewable energy sources and cogeneration, has decided to achieve a minimal share of 2% of electricity produced from cogeneration in total electricity consumption in the Republic of Croatia by the 31 December 2010.

Support mechanisms for RES
The price of electricity produced from renewable energy sources is significantly higher than an average price of electricity produced in conventional power plants. For this reason the Directive 2001/77/EC of the European Parliament and the Council on the promotion of electricity produced from renewable sources in internal electricity market binds every EU member state to legally define a support mechanism.

Two most usual support mechanisms used nowadays in Europe are: feed-in tariff system or pricing system and system quota obligations.

Feed-in-tariff system defines the following obligations:

TSO and DSO obligation of connecting eligible producers to the network,
obligation to purchase electricity produced from renewable energy sources,
obligation to implement a tariff system for producing electricity from renewable energy sources.
This support mechanism is currently the most common in Europe, in states where the largest number of facilities using renewable energy sources are present (e.g. Germany, Spain, Denmark, the Netherlands, France, Portugal).

System quota obligation is a legally defined energy entity’s obligation to produce or off-take a specified amount of electricity generated from renewable energy sources. The quota fulfillment is supervized by a responsible body authorized and registered by the state.More info at http://solarserdar.wordpress.com/

Green certificates can acknowledge the fulfillment of the prescribed quota. Prescribed quotas are fulfilled when an energy entity shows proof of purchasing an appropriate number of green certificates to a responsible body. Green certificate market is parallel to electricity market. A producer of electricity from renewable energy sources sells its produced electricity for a market price in parallel with selling the green certificate gotten/awarded for each MWh of electricity produced from renewable energy sources. This additional green certificate sales income enables covering most of its larger production expenses which a producer might have in comparison with other producers.

Green certificates are issued by a body responsible for certificate issuing, authorized and registered by the state. Since a green certificate represents an electronic record containing all required data including “the guarantee of origin”, it is necessary to introduce a single register for keeping record of green certificates in order to provide a transparent and non-discrimatory market. Green certificates have a certain “life cycle” which includes the process of their issuing by a responsible body, certificate trading – since the same certificate can change several owners - and finally its utilization in case when the electricity amount covered by a certain green certificate has been sold to the end-customer. Such support mechanism is market oriented and has been applied in only six European states: Great Britain, Sweden, Belgium, Italy, Romania and Poland.

HROTE Croatian Energy Market Operator
Miramarska 23 10000 Zagreb Croatia
T +385 1 63 06 700 F +385 1 63 06 777

CROATIANCENTER of RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES (CCRES)
Zeljko Serdar
Head of business association
solarserdar@gmail.com